£ibi 

^arjp  of  Che  t:heolo0ical  Seminary 

PRINCETON    .    NEW  JERSEY 
PRESENTED  BY 

Prances  Lea 

BX    4847    .B35    1845 
Baird,    Robert,    1798-1863, 
Sketches   of   protestantism  : 
Italy,    past   and  present 

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TJTBuffur 


DrcreaEss  o.w  Feshkara, 


SKETCHES 


JUN  J;9  )3&7 


PROTESTANTISM  IN   ITALY. 


PAST   AND   PRESENT 


INCLUDING    A 


NOTICE  OF  THE  ORIGIN,  HISTORY,  AND  PRESENT  STATE 


THE    WALDENSES. 


V 


BY    ROBERT   BAIRD. 


BOSTON: 

BENJAMIN    PERKINS    &    CO. 
1845. 


Entered  according  to  dh  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845, 
BY    BENJAMIN   PERKINS   AND    CO. 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


boston: 
s.  n.  dickinson,  printer, 

52  Washington  Street. 


THE  HONORABLE  DANIEL  WALDO, 

THIS    VOLUME, 

WHICH   GRATEFULLY    COMMEMORATES 

THE  PIETY  AND  ZEAL 

OF    HIS    REVERED    AND    EXCELLENT    ANCESTORS, 

ESPECIALLY 

PETER  WALDO,  OF  LYONS, 

Clje  J^cCormet  of  tfjc  ^toelftij  (STrnturs, 

IS    MOST    RESPECTFULLY    INSCRIBED, 
BY    HIS    FRIEND, 

THE    AUTHOR. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In  presenting  this  volume  to  the  public,  the  author  begs 
leave  to  make  a  few  remarks  by  way  of  preface. 

At  an  early  period  of  his  sojourn  in  Europe,  he  was 
kindly  solicited  by  gentlemen  in  England,  as  well  as  in  his 
native  land,  to  prepare  a  work  on  the  state  of  religion  on  the 
Continent.  And  since  the  publication  of  his  Religion  in 
America,  he  has  often  been  asked  whether  he  does  not 
intend  to  prepare  a  work,  correlative  and  correspondent,  on 
Europe.  But  however  much  he  may  desire  to  comply  with 
such  suggestions  and  such  requests,  his  official  and  other 
duties  are  too  numerous  and  too  pressing  to  permit  him  to 
hope  to  be  able  to  accomplish  such  a  task  within  a  short 
time.  All  that  he  can  do  is  to  prepare,  at  intervals,  a 
volume  relating  to  a  part  of  the  great  field  in  question.  In 
the  present  work  he  has  made  a  beginning.  And  should 
this  effort  to  delineate  the  religious  state  of  the  country  to 
which  it  relates  be  favorably  received  by  the  Christian 
public,  and  God  grant  life  and  health,  it  will  be  followed 
at  no  very  distant  day  by  similar  volumes,  relating  to 
France,  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  Russia,  etc. 

In  this  volume,  the  author  has  endeavored  to  give  the 
reader  such  information  respecting  the  history,  present  con- 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

dition,  and  future  prospects  of  pure  Christianity  in  Italy,  as 
it  is  in  his  power  to  communicate.  The  work  consists  of 
three  nearly  equal  parts.  The  first  relates  to  the  rise, 
progress,  and  suppression  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy.  In 
this  portion  of  the  book,  he  has  availed  himself  extensively 
of  the  invaluable  work  of  the  late  excellent  Dr.  McCrie  on 
the  same  subject.  He  has,  however,  added  many  things, 
derived  from  various  sources,  which  the  reader  will  find 
duly  indicated  as  he  advances. 

The  second  part  describes  the  state  of  things  in  Italy  since 
the  Reformation,  and  though  quite  miscellaneous  in  its  sub- 
jects and  details,  it  will  probably  be  read  with  interest  by 
those  who  desire  to  know  the  state  of  things  in  that  beautiful, 
but  spiritually  benighted  country. 

The  third  part  contains  as  full  a  notice  of  the  Waldenses, 
their  origin,  their  country,  their  history,  and  their  present 
condition  and  prospects,  as  the  nature  of  this  work  would 
permit.  It  does  not  profess  to  be  a  full  history  of  that 
wonderful  people  —  a  great  desideratum,  for  we  have  noth- 
ing in  English  which  is  worthy  of  the  name.  Some  notice 
of  the  Waldenses  was  necessary  in  a  work  which  undertakes 
to  speak  of  Protestantism  in  Italy,  past  and  present. 

A  map  accompanies  the  volume,  on  which  the  valleys 
inhabited  by  the  Waldenses  are  delineated  with  sufficient 
accuracy  to  give  the  attentive  reader  some  idea  of  their 
mountain-home.  On  a  corner  of  that  map,  will  be  seen  the 
beautiful  and  appropriate  insignia  of  that  heaven-preserved 
people,  consisting  of  seven  stars  surrounding  a  blazing  lamp, 
enciixling  which   runs  the  appropriate  motto:    Lux  lucet 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll 

IN  Tp:nebris.*  May  it  ever  shine  in  those  valleys,  until 
all  the  surrounding  region  shall  be  full  of  the  light  of  the 
glorious  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ ! 

The  reader  will  learn  that,  deplorable  as  is  the  religious 
state  of  Italy,  there  are  some  things  which  encourage. 
Some  rays  of  truth  are  reaching  the  minds  of  a  portion, 
however  small,  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Bible  is  demanded ; 
and  to  some  extent  it  is  obtained,  read,  and  highly  prized. 
And  whilst  thick  darkness,  like  that  which  rested  upon 
Egypt  of  old,  covers  that  interesting  country,  there  is  still  a 
'  land  of  Goshen '  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  in  which  there 
is  light. 

The  reader  will  learn  that  there  are  nearly  forty  Protest- 
ant ministers  of  the  gospel  in  Italy  at  present,  about  one 
half  of  whom  are  labormg  as  pastors  and  professors  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Waldenses.  And  if  this  volume  should  be  the 
means,  under  God's  blessing,  of  leading  those  who  read  it  to 
pray  definitely  and  earnestly  for  the  influences  of  his  Spirit, 
to  render  the  Truth  which  may  be  preached  by  these  min- 
isters, or  which  may  be  read  on  the  pages  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  religious  books  and  tracts,  effectual  to  the 
salvation  of  many  souls,  and  the  extension  of  Christ's 
kingdom  in  that  land,  it  will  not  have  been  written  in  vain. 

One  word  more.  The  author  feels  that  if  this  work  should 
contribute  in  any  measure,  however  small,  to  engage  those 
who  read  it  to  take  a  deeper  interest  in  the  conversion  of 
Roman    Catholic   nations   to   true   Christianity,  his    highest 

*  Light  shining  in  Darkness. 


Till  INTRODUCTION. 

wishes  will  have  been  accomplished.  This  is  a  subject 
which  he,  deems  of  paramount  importance.  We  are  sending 
the  gospel  to  the  heathen,  and  often  to  nations  whose  influ- 
ence is  nothing  in  the  world;  and  in  doing  so,  we  are 
passing  by  powerful  Roman  Catholic  countries,  which  are 
almost  as  destitute  of  the  true  gospel  as  the  heathen  them- 
selves. And  yet  a  little  reflection  would  teach  us,  that  the 
world  cannot  be  converted  without  the  regeneration  of 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  Every  year  shows  more  and 
more  clearly  that  Rome  is  putting  forth  all  her  energies,  to 
recover  what  she  has  lost,  and  to  conquer  Protestant  nations. 
She  plants  her  missions,  too,  in  heathen  countries,  wherever 
the  Protestants  plant  theirs,  and  does  all  that  she  can  to 
counteract  all  their  efforts  in  that  direction.  What,  then, 
is  our  duty  in  reference  to  the  Roman  Catholic  world  ? 
Evidently,  first,  to  carry  the  Truth  into  every  country 
which  is  under  the  dominion  of  Romanism  as  quickly 
and  as  extensively  as  possible,  wherever  the  way  is  open ; 
and,  secondly,  to  pray  without  ceasing  that,  where  the 
way  is  not  open  for  doing  this,  it  may  be,  speedily,  in 
the  good  providence  of  God.  The  Protestant  world  cannot 
afford  to  sleep  much  longer  over  this  subject.  And  the  very 
success  which  is  attending  the  efforts  that  are  making  to 
introduce  the  Word  of  God,  and  in  other  ways  to  promote 
the  Truth  in  Catholic  countries,  should  encourage  us  in  the 
hope  that  the  time  has  come  for  the  Reformation  to  recom- 
mence its  glorious  career. 

New  York,  April  1,  1845. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART    I. 

REFORMATION  IN  ITALY. 
CHAPTER  I. 

ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION.   12-36. 

Struggles  for  the  Truth,  14.  Paganism  in  the  Church,  15.  Ambrose 
and  Claude,  16.  The  Paulicians,  17.  Light  in  dark  places,  18.  Ar- 
naldo  da  Brescia,  19.  Adrian  IV.,  and  Arnaldo,  21.  Savonarola,  23. 
Savonarola  and  Alexander  VI.,  26.  Influence  of  the  Revival  of  Learn- 
ing, 28.  Dante,  30.  Petrarch  and  others,  31.  Need  of  Reformation 
felt  by  some  in  the  Church,  34.     Reformation  a  difficult  work,  35. 

CHAPTER  11. 

ENTRANCE  OF  THE  REFORMATION  INTO  ITALY.   37-51. 

Preparation  for  the  Reformation  —  Re\aval  of  Letters,  37.  John  Reuch- 
lin,  38.  Erasmus,  39.  Reuchlin's  Quarrel  with  the  Dominicans,  40. 
Letters  of  some  obscure  Men,  41.  Writings  of  the  Reformers  pene- 
trate into  Italy,  42.  Study  of  the  Scriptures,  44.  Translation  of  the 
Scriptures  into  Italian,  46.  Circumstances  which  favored  the  Entrance 
of  the  Reformation  into  Italy,  47.  Need  of  a  Reformation  felt  by  some, 
even  in  the  Vatican,  50. 

CHAPTER   III. 

PROGRESS    OF    THE    REFORMATION    IN    ITALY.       52-84. 

Progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Venice,  52.  It  spreads  in  Milan,  56. 
It  gains  ground  in  Mantua,  57.  The  Truth  enters  Locarno,  58.  The 
Reformation  spreads  at  Capo  d'Istria,  59.  Progress  of  the  Reforaia- 
tion  at  Ferrara,  60.  At  Modena,  63.  In  the  States  of  tlie  Church,  65. 
In  Lucca,  Pisa,  and  Sienna,  69.  In  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
70.  Unhapp}'  Controversies  between  the  Protestants  in  Italy,  74. 
Doctrines  of  the  Reformation  embraced  by  some  distinguished  Ladies 
in  Italy,  78.     Favored  by  distinguished  Men,  79. 


10  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION.       85-136. 

Ochino  and  Martyr  fly,  86.'  Celio  Secundo  Curio  escapes,  88.  Reor- 
ganization of  the  Inquisition  in  Italy,  89.  Persecution  in  Modena,  91. 
The  Reformed  Doctrine  extirpated  at  Ferrara,  92.  Persecution  rages 
in  Venice  and  its  Territories,  97.  Protestants  driven  from  Locarno, 
100.  Persecution  in  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Cremona,  104.  Dispersion 
of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Lucca,  105.  Persecution  at  Florence  and 
other  places  in  Tuscany,  107.  Persecution  at  Naples,  108.  Destmc- 
tion  of  the  Waldenses  in  Calahria,  110.  Persecution  in  the  Pope's 
Dominions,  117.  Distinguished  Italian  Martyrs,  120.  Suppression 
and  Destruction  of  Books,  133. 

CHAPTER  V. 

DISPERSION  OF  THE  ITALIAN  PROTESTANTS  ;  THE  CHURCHES 
OF  THE  SAME  WHICH  WERE  FORMED  IN  FOREIGN 
LANDS.       137-166. 

Italian  Protestant  Churches  in  the  Orisons  and  their  Dependencies,  137. 
Italian  Protestant  Chiarches  in  Switzerland,  149.  At  Geneva,  153.  In 
France,  158.  In  Germany,  159,  In  the  Netherlands,  161.  At  Lon- 
don, 163.    Concluding  Remarks,  164. 


PAET  II 


ITALY  SINCE  THE  REFORMATION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  STATE   OF  ITALY   SINCE   THE   REFORMATION. 

169-202. 

Political  Changes  through  which  Italy  has  passed  since  the  Reformation, 
no.  Progress  of  Civilization  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation,  176. 
Progress  of  the  Fine  Arts,  180.  State  of  Education  in  Italy  since  the 
Kefoi-mation,  183.  State  of  Literature  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation, 
190.    Political  and  Social  Condition  of  Italy  at  present,  193. 


CONTENTS.  1 1 

CHAPTER  11. 

STATE    OF   RELIGION    IN    ITALY    SINCE    THE     REFORMATION. 

203-261. 

Rome  at  length  awakes  to  a  sense  of  the  Danger  which  menaces  her,  203. 
i^o  o^J^^ehgious  Orders  purified  and  enlarged,  and  new  ones  created, 
208.  The  Council  of  Trent,  224.  Reaction  in  favor  of  Romanism, 
I"  ,™^^^o^  agamst  Romanism,  232.  Life  and  Vigor  now  return 
to  both  Protestantism  and  Romanism,  233.  Sacred  Literature  in  Italy 
smce  the  Reformation,  235.  Character  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Clergy 
m  Italy,  238  State  of  the  Monastic  Establishments  in  Italy  242 
Character  of  the  Religion  of  the  Italians,  250.  State  of  Morality  in 
Italy,  253.    Lncouragmg  Signs  in  Relation  to  Italy,  258. 

CHAPTER  III. 

PROTESTANT    CHAPELS    IN    ITALY.     .262-282. 

Protestant  Chapels  at  Rome,  265.  At  Naples,  268.  At  Messina,  270. 
AtPalernK),27l.  At  Leghorn,  271.  At  Florence,  272.  At  Venice, 
ola  A  S^'^^^'  2^"^-  ^t  Bergamo,  275.  At  Milan,  275.  At  Turin, 
276.  At  Nice,  278.  Occasional  Protestant  Services,  279.  Protestant 
Chaplains  in  the  Army  of  Naples,  279.     Summary,  280. 


PART  III. 


THE  HISTORY,   PRESENT    STATE,   AND   PROSPECTS    OF 
THE  WALDENSES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ORIGIN   AND    ANTIQUITY    OF    THE    WALDENSES.       285-300. 

Their  Name,  whence  derived,  286.  Their  Origin,  287.  Opinions  of  the 
Waldenses  themselves  respecting  their  Origin,  288.  Testimony  of 
their  Enemies  on  this  subject,  291.  Wliy  the  Waldenses  are  called 
Leonists,  293.  Testimony  of  Rorenco,  Cassini,  and  others,  to  the  An- 
tiquity of  the  Waldenses,  295.  Opinion  of  Voltaire  respecting  the 
Origin  of  the  Waldenses,  297.  Opinions  of  distinguished  Protestants 
m  Relation  to  this  subject,  298.  The  Antiquity  of  the  Waldenses  fur- 
ther attested  by  the  Antiquity  of  the  Dialect  which  they  speak,  299. 


12  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  11. 

A    BRIEF    DESCRIPTION     OF     THE     COUNTRY     INHABITED     BY 
THE    WALDENSES.       301-330. 

A  general  Notice  of  their  Territory,  301.  Valley  of  Luseme,  306.  Val- 
ley of  Rora,  313.  Valley  of  Perouse,  315.  Valley  of  St.  Martin,  318. 
Valley  of  Angrogna,  326.     Concluding  Remarks,  328. 

CHAPTER  in. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    WALDENSES.       331-368. 

The  Waldenses  belonged  at  first  to  the  General  Church,  331.  Peter 
Waldo  and  his  followers,  335.  Number  of  the  Waldenses  about  this 
Period,  337.  Their  ancient  Missionary  Spirit,  338.  Beginning  of 
Persecution  in  the  Valleys,  341.  Crusades  against  the  Waldenses 
commenced,  343.  Second*^  Crusade  against  the  Waldenses,  344.  The 
Valleys  come  under  the  Government  of  France,  345.  Persecution  re- 
newed by  Emanuel  Philibert,  346.  State  of  things  grows  worse,  348. 
The  horril)le  Massacre  in  sixteen  hundred  and  sixty-five,  349.  Effect 
upon  Protestant  Europe,  350.  The  State  of  the  Waldenses  continues 
deplorable,  353.  Last  and  most  dreadful  War,  354.  Their  glorious 
Return  to  their  Valleys,  357.  Striking  Analogies  in  their  History,  359. 
Unworthy  Conduct  of  Victor  Amadeus  at  the  last,  360.  Subsequent 
History  of  the  Waldenses,  362.  Renewed  Interest  felt  in  their  Behalf, 
365, 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PRESENT  STATE  OF  THE  WALDENSES  ;  THEIR  ECCLESIAS- 
TICAL ORGANIZATION  ;  THEIR  DOCTRINES  ;  THEIR  MODE 
OF    WORSHIP,    ETC.       369-413. 

Visit  of  the  Author  to  the  Valleys,  369.  His  first  Impressions  upon  ar- 
riving in  the  land  of  the  Waldenses,  371.  History  of  the  Waldenses 
appalling,  375.  Second  Visit  to  the  Valleys,  376.  Names  of  the 
present  Pastors  and  Ministers  in  the  Valleys,  —  their  Character,  376. 
Labors  of  the  Waldensian  Pastors,  —  their  Style  of  Preaching,  378. 
Mode  of  conducting  Public  Worship  in  the  Churches  of  the  Valleys, 
381.  Liturgy  of  the  Waldensian  Churches,  383.  Polity  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  of  the  Valleys,  386.  Doctrines  of  the  Waldensian 
Churches,  394.  Roman  Catholic  Influence  in  the  Valleys,  398.  State 
of  Religion  among  the  Waldenses,  399.  State  of  Morals  among  the 
Waldenses,  401.  State  of  Education  in  the  Valleys,  404.  Our  Last 
Days  in  the  Valleys,  408. 


PART   I. 


PROTESTANTISM   IN   ITALY. 


PART    I. 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  ITALY:  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


CHAPTER    I. 

ITALY  BEFORE  THE  EEFORMATION. 

There  are  few  countries  with  which  so  many  interesting 
associations  are  connected  as  Italy.  The  philosopliical  stu- 
dent of  History  looks  upon  it  as  the  seat  of  the  longest-con- 
tinued and  most-extended  dominion  over  the  nations ;  for  it 
is  the  country  in  which  the  fourth  great  monarchy  arose,  and 
extended  its  rule  over  all  the  then  civihzed  world.  And 
when  that  vast  empire  came  to  an  end,  another,  of  a  religio- 
political  nature,  arose  on  its  ruins,  whose  influence  over  man- 
kind has  been  far  greater  than  that  of  its  predecessor.  Thus 
the  dominion  of  ancient  Rome  and  its  Caesars,  has  been  per- 
petuated in  modern  Rome  and  its  Popes. 

The  statesman  regards  it  as  the  great  centre  of  the  politi- 
cal movements  which  have  agitated  the  world  for  the  last 
twenty-five  centuries,  and  from  which,  more  than  any  other, 
they  have  received  their  impulse  and  direction.  The  military 
nan  delights  to  contemplate  it  as  the  land  of  Scipio,  of  Svlla. 
2 


14         ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

of  Caesar,  of  Germanicus ;  as  tlie  scene  of  many  of  the  most 
renowned  battles  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  The  friend 
of  liberty  feels  his  heart  to  burn  within  him,  as  he  looks  upon 
the  country  of  Brutus,  of  Cato,  of  Ai^naldo  da  Brescia,  and 
many  others,  who  resisted  tyranny,  and  lost  their  lives  in  the 
struggle. 

To  the  scholar,  Italy  has  indescribable  charms,  as  the  land 
of  Virgil,  of  Cicero,  of  Livy,  of  Tacitus,  of  Dante,  of  Tasso, 
of  Petrarch,  of  Boccaccio,  and  a  host  of  others,  whose  writ- 
ings have  enlightened,  stimulated,  and  guided  the  minds  and 
polished  the  manners  of  men. 

To  the  Christian,  it  ranks  next,  in  point  of  interest,  to  that 
land  which  was  trodden  by  the  Saviour  of  the  world ;  for  it 
.  was  visited  by  Apostles ;  it  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  ear- 
liest and  most  glorious  conquests  of  Christianity,  and  its  soil 
has  been  steeped  in  the  blood  of  martyrs. 

But  to  a  Protestant  Christian  there  is  much  in  Italy  to 
excite  deep  and  peculiar  emotions ;  for  it  is  the  land  in  which 
the  great  Mystery  of  Iniquity  gradually  arose,  and  grew, 
till  it  overpowered  the  Truth  in  all  parts  of  Christendom,  save 
in  some  of  its  own  Alpme  valleys,  and  filled  the  Christian 
world  with  the  ignorance  and  sujperstition  of  a  baptized  pa- 
ganism. 

I.     Struggles  for  the   Truth. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Papal  Antichrist  nowhere 
encountered  a  more  steady,  long-continued,  or  powerfid  oppo- 
sition, than  in  Italy  itself.  In  that  country.  Truth  had  an 
uninterrupted  succession  of  defenders,  from  the  days  of  the 
Apostles  till  the  Reformation.  It  was  in  her  mountain-valleys 
in  Piedmont,  that  the  true  Church  found  a  retreat  during  more 
than  a  thousand  years ;  whilst  all  the  rest  of  Christendom 
gradually,  and  at  length  universally,  bowed  beneath  the 
dominion  of  the  '  Man  of  sin.' 


PAGANISM   IN   THE    CHURCH.  15 

Many  reasons  for  this  may  be  assigned.  Great  as  was  the 
ignorance  of  the  masses  in  the  villages  and  smaller  towns, 
even  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Cliristian  era,  still,  in  a 
number  of  cities  and  large  towns,  there  was  a  considerable 
amount  of  intelligence  and  education  among  the  middle  and 
higher  classes.  In  Milan  and  Turin,  for  mstance,  the  higher 
clergy  resisted  the  arrogant  assumptions  of  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  until  the  eleventh  century. 

And  wliilst  the  conquest  of  Italy  by  the  barbarians  from 
the  north,  in  the  fifth  century,  tended  to  increase  the  corrup- 
tion of  Christianity,  which  had  long  since  commenced,  through 
the  incorporation  of  heathen  rites  and  ceremonies,  under  the 
pretext  of  gaining  over  the  invading  pagans,  it  also,  by  creat- 
ing many  antagonistic  influences,  rendered  it  easy  for  Tiiith 
to  find  protection  under  one  or  another  of  these.  The  con- 
tests between  the  Frankish  monarchs  and  the  partisans  of 
the  popes,  and  those  between  the  latter  and  the  emperors  of 
Germany,  were  favorable  to  the  few  who  desired,  even  in  the 
midst'  of  these  scenes,  to  maintain  the  gospel  in  something 
like  its  original  purity.  And  it  was  not  till  the  popes  had 
succeeded  in  effectually  establishhig  their  authority  over  the 
dvil  governments  of  that  country,  that  they  found  leisure  to 
subdue  recusant  bishops  and  people.  At  a  later  period,  also, 
the  Great  Schism,  and  the  struggles  between  the  popes  and 
anti-popes,  were  favorable  to  the  friends  of  Truth  by  weak^ 
ening  its  enemies. 

II.    Paganism  in  the  Church, 

It  is  a  matter  of  history,  that,  as  early  as  the  fourth  cen^ 
tury,  gross  superstition  had  gained  much  ground  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  To  conciliate  the  votaries  of  polytheism,  who 
were  still  exceedingly  niunerous  throughout  the  empire,  the 
Christian  hierarchy  in  the  days  of  Constantine,  and  after- 
wards, thought  it  expedient  to  leave  as  many  of  the  old  popu^ 


16         ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

lar  superstitions  in  practice,  as  might  be  varnished  over  and 
adapted  to  Christian  worship.  Certain  helps  to  devotion,  as 
they  were  termed,  were  retained ;  such  as  images,  pictures, 
processions,  reUcs,  pilgrimages,  votive-offerings,  expiatory 
performances,  and  self-inflicted  bodily  penances.  Veneration 
of  saints,  and  of  the  bones  of  departed  saints,  followed.  Aban- 
donment of  the  world  for  the  life  of  a  hermit  became  the 
highest  style  of  piety.  And  by  a  regular  succession  of  cor- 
ruptions Christianity  gave  place  to  a  degrading  superstition, 
which  was  little  better  than  pure  heathenism.  '  The  fine  gold 
became  dim,'  and  truth  was  almost  wholly  lost  amid  the  mass 
of  error,  which  entered  the  sacred  precincts  of  the  Church  and 
took  up  its  abode  there. 

Indeed,  the  earliest  of  the  Christian  fathers  show  in  their 
wi-itings  the  current  which  things  were  taking,  even  in  their 
days.  And  m  the  fifth  century,  the  great  and  good  Augustine, 
that  able  defender  of  the  faith  which  saves,  was  far  from 
being  free  from  the  superstition  which  prevailed  around  him, 
and  which,  after  his  day,  reigned  almost  without  opposition 
for  a  thousand  years. 

III.    Amhrose  mid  Claude. 

Nevertheless,  God  raised  up,  from  time  to  time,  some  who 
nobly  maintained  the  truth.  The  followers  of  the  excellent 
Ambrose,  an  archbishop  of  Milan,  m  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century,  long  resisted  the  errors  to  which  we  have 
referred,  as  well  as  the  claims  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  Even 
to  tliis  day,  there  are  some  remains  in  the  diocese  of  that  city, 
of  the  good  influence  of  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  that 
great  man. 

And  it  is  truly  refreshing  to  come  down  to  the  times  of 
Claude,  Bishop  of  Turin,  in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  contemplate  the  noble  position  which  that  excellent 
man  took  in  defence  of  the  pure  gospel.     In  his  writings,  the 


THE   PAULICIANS.  17 

unscriptural  vanity  of  saint-worship,  image-worship,  relic- 
worship,  idle  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  formal  penances,  the  su- 
premacy of  the  self-styled  successors  of  Peter,  are  admirably 
exposed  and  severely  rebuked.  Li  his  commentary  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  he  ably  repels  the  claims  of 
Rome,  maintains  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone, 
denies  the  imaginary  infallibility  of  the  church,  declares 
heresy  to  consist  in  departing  from  the  Word  of  God,  and 
affirms  that  there  was  no  want  of  such  heretics  in  the  bosom 
of  the  Church  in  his  day. -^  His  writings  are  singularly  free 
from  the  superstitions,  even  of  the  incomplete  popery  of  the 
ninth  century. 

IV.     The  Paulicians. 

The  cause  of  evangelical  truth  in  the  north  part  of  Italy 
was  strengthened  for  a  time,  by  the  immigration  of  membei^ 
of  the  sect  of  Paulicians,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, or  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh.  These  greatly  vilified 
people,  whom  the  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  never  ceased 
to  stigmatize  as  Manicheans,  seem  to  have  derived  their  exis- 
tence, as  a  denomination  of  Christians,  from  the  teaching  of 
one  Constantine,  who  lived  m  Armenia,  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century.  Their  name  was  probably  derived 
from  the  apostle  Paul,  whose  writings  their  founder  greatly 
admired.  After  enduring  much  persecution  from  the  Greek 
emperors,  they  emigrated  from  their  native  land  to  Europe, 
and  passing  through  Thrace  and  Bulgaria,  they  came  at 
length  to  Germany  and  Italy^  and  finally  penetrated  into  the 
south  of  France,  where,  blending  with  the  faithful  disciples  of 
Jesus  Christ,  who  were  still  to  be  found  m  that  country,  they 
were  called  the  Albigenses.  Ecclesiastical  history  informs 
us  that  they  had  a  considerable  number  of  churches  in  the 

1  See  An  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the  Ancient  Yallenses  and  Albi- 
genses, etc.,  by  G.  S.  Faber,  D.  D.    Book  III.,  Chap.  IV.,  pp.  306-329. 
2* 


18  ITALY   BEFORE    THE    REFORMATION. 

Valley  of  the  Po,  and  that  their  doctrines  spread  in  all  the 
chief  towns  of  the  north  of  Italy.  By  this  means  the  Truth 
was  sustained,  at  least  in  that  portion  of  the  country,  for  a 
considerable  time.  ^ 

But  the  floods  of  error  which  continued  to  issue  forth  from 
Rome  augmented  with  each  passing  century,  until  they  cov- 
ered all  Christendom,  and  swept  away  almost  every  vestige  of 
pure  Cliristianity.  Absurd  and  debasing  superstitions  pre- 
vailed among  the  ignorant,  down-trodden  masses;  whilst  a 
corrupt  and  insolent  hierarchy,  in  combination  with  a  haughty 
and  tyrannical  aristocracy,  lorded  it  over  them  without  con- 
trol. And  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth,  every  thing  that  deserved  the  name  of 
true  Christianity  was  well-nigh  extinct  in  the  world. 

V.     Light  in  Dark  Places. 

But  yet  all  was  not  lost.  The  lamp  of  truth  continued  to 
burn  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  though  its  flame  often  flickered 
in  the  socket,  and  seemed  as  if  it  must  expire.  Nor  were  the 
Waldenses  quite  alone.  There  were,  in  the  mountains  of 
Bohemia  and  lloravia,  those  who  sympathized  with  them, 
and  nobly  contended  for  the  same  glorious  Faith.  ^ 

2  For  an  interesting  history  and  able  vindication  of  the  Paulicians,  and  their  doc- 
trines, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  admirable  work  of  Mr.  Faber,  already  men- 
tioned. 

3  There  is  indubitable  evidence  that  there  were  many  afliliated  little  societies  of 
Waldenses,  or  of  people  who  held  the  same  Faith,  dispersed  throughout  Italy,  and 
maintaining  intimate  intercourse  with  their  brethren  in  the  valleys  in  Piedmont  and 
Dauphiny,  and  through  them,  with  brethren  of  the  same  communion  in  Bohemia 
and  Poland,  during  the  13lh,  I4th,  and  15th  centuries.  Abundant  proof  of  this  is  to 
be  found  in  Allix's  Churches  of  Piedmont^  Leger's  Hisloire  cles  Egliscs  Evangcliques ; 
the  Annals  of  Rauiald,  Matthew  Paris's  History,  and  other  works  which  treat  of 
this  subject.  They  had  such  societies  in  the  beginning  of  the  ISlh  century,  in  Rome 
itself,  a  fact  which  led  Gregory  IX.  to  issue  a  famous  bull  against  them,  ordering 
their  destruction,  not  only  there,  but  wherever  they  might  be  found.  Such  societies 
existed  both  in  that  century  and  the  following  one,  in  all  the  chief  places  in  the  Val- 
ley of  the  Po,  such  as  Corno,  Milan,  Cremona,  and  in  the  territories  of  Venice. 
They  had  houses  in  Genoa  and  Florence.    They  sent  young  men  to  the  University 


ARNALDO    DA   BRESCIA.  19 

And  when  the  time  of  the  Eeformation  drew  on,  God  raised 
up,  in  various  countries,  men  whom  he  called  to  prepare  the 
way  for  that  wonderful  movement,  which  was  to  shake  all 
Chi'istendom  to  its  centre,  and  break  down  a  portion  of  the 
walls  of  the  Romish  Babylon.  *  And  as  the  Truth  had  been 
overcome  by  a  succession  of  error,  so  Error  was  now  to  be 
overcome  by  a  succession  of  truth.  Thus,  as  from  the  earliest 
dawn,  '  the  light  shineth  more  and  more  unto  the  perfect  day,' 
so  did  the  Truth  gain  upon  Error,  extend  her  conquests,  en- 
large her  dominion,  and  reestablish  her  throne  in  the  world, 
never  again  to  be  overthrown,  till  time  shall  be  no  more. 

Whilst  England  and  Germany  furnished  champions  for  the 
Truth  in  the  dark  ages  which  preceded  the  glorious  morning 
of  the  Reformation,  Italy,  too,  furnished  more  than  one  man 
v/ho  had  the  courage  to  lift  up  his  voice  against  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  clergy  arid  the  corruptions  of  the  papacy.  We 
will  say  a  few  words  respecting  two  of  these  men,  who  not 
only  defended  the  cause  of  truth  and  justice,  but  also  suffered 
for  that  defence, 

VI.     Arnaldo  da  Brescia. 
In  the  former  part  of  the  twelfth  century  arose  Amaldo  da 
Brescia,  a  man  of  great  learning  and  courage,  and  a  disciple 
of  the  famous  Abelard.     He  publicly  maintained  that  the  in- 
comes of  the  popes,  bishops,  parish  clergy,  and  monastic  estab- 

of  Paris  even,  in  order  that  they  might  be  so  trained  as  to  be  equal  to  their  oppo- 
nents in  dialectics.  About  the  year  1370,  a  colony  of  Waldenses,  or  Vaudois,  emi- 
grated from  the  valley  of  Pragela,  in  PiedmoiiJ,  to  Calabria,  in  the  south  part  of 
Italy,  where  their  descendants,  joined  from  time  to  time  by  new  accessions,  main- 
tained the  pure  gospel  down  till  the  opening  scenes  of  the  Reformation,  when  they 
were  cruelly  extirpated  by  persecution.  A  history  of  this  colony,  and  an  account 
of  its  destruction,  will  be  found  in  that  portion  of  this  book  v/hich  treats  of  the  AVal- 
denses. 

4  The  reader  will  find  an  interesting  account  of  the  forentnners  of  the  Reformation, 
in  the  excellent  work  of  Mr.  De  Bonnechose,  entitled,  The  Reformers  befort  the 
Reformation. 


20  ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

lishments,  ought  to  be  surrendered  to  the  civil  authorities  of 
each  state,  and  that  nothing  should  be  left  to  the  ministers  of 
religion,  whatever  their  rank  or  position,  but  a  spiritual 
authority,  and  a  support  drawn  from  the  tithes  and  voluntary 
contributions  of  the  people. 

These  doctrines,  so  odious  to  the  entire  hierarchy  of  Rome, 
Arnaldo  maintained  with  much  spirit  at  Brescia,  his  native 
city,  where  he  had  many  adherents.  But,  in  the  year  1139,  a 
council  was  held  at  Rome,  (called  the  Second  Lateran  Coun- 
cil,) which  was  attended  by  the  Bishop  of  Brescia,  and  several 
abbots  of  his  diocese.  At  this  council  the  doctrines  of  Arnal- 
do, who  was  absent  and  of  course  unheard,  were  condemned, 
and  he  was  forbidden  to  preach  them.  Soon  afterwards  his 
partisans  at  Brescia  were  excommunicated  and  driven  out  of 
the  city. 

Arnaldo  took  refuge  in  France,  with  his  friend  and  master, 
Abelard,  who  chose  him  as  his  supporter  in  the  famous 
Council  of  Sens,  where  he  defended  his  opinions  against  the 
Bishop  of  Chartres  and  the  celebrated  Bernard,  abbot  of 
Clairvaux.  Driven  from  France  by  the  hatred  of  Bernard, 
Arnaldo  retired  to  Zurich,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  re- 
sided in  security  until  1145,  zealously  preaching  doctrines 
which  had  been  condemned  at  Rome.  In  that  year  he  re- 
paired to  Rome,  and  during  the  pontificates  of  Eugene  III. 
and  Anastasius  IV.  he  did  all  that  was  in  his  power  to  revive 
the  spirit  of  the  degenerate  Romans,  and  to  excite  them  to 
resist  both  the  pope  and  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and 
vindicate  their  liberties.  At  his  suggestion,  the  form  of  the 
ancient  Roman  commonwealth  was  restored,  with  its  consuls, 
senate,  equestrian  order,  and  tribunes  of  the  people.  But 
it  was  all  in  vain.  The  Romans  were  no  longer  fit  for  free- 
dom ;  but,  like  the  Capadocians  of  old,  when  offered  this  boon, 
they  preferred  the  chains  which  they  had  so  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  wear. 


ADRIAN   IV.   AND   ARNALDO.  21 

Vn.     Adrian  IV.  and  Arnaldo. 

Anastasius  IV.  was  succeeded  in  St.  Peter's  chair,  in  1154, 
by  Adrian  IV. ;  a  man  of  little  learning,  but  much  ambition, 
and  great  decision  of  character.  Possessed  of  lofty  ideas,  and 
courage  to  carry  his  plans  mto  effect,  he  advanced  his  notions 
of  papal  prerogative  and  supremacy  to  a  further  point  than 
any  of  his  predecessors,  save  Gregory  Wl.,  the  famous  Hil- 
debrand. 

The  original  name  of  Adrian  IV.  was  Nicholas  Break- 
spere,  an  Englishman,  the  only  one  of  his  nation  that  has 
ever  had  the  honor  of  occupying  the  See  of  the  Fisherman. 
Between  such  opinions  as  he  entertained  and  those  of  Arnal- 
do there  could  be  no  congeniality ;  and  though  his  reign  as 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  high-priest  of  the  universal  Church, 
was  no  longer  than  five  years,  it  was  long  enough  to  effect 
the  ruin  of  Arnaldo.  Frederick  Barbarossa,  recently  elected 
emperor  of  Germany,  entered  Italy  with  a  large  army,  soon 
after  Adrian's  accession  to  the  pontifical  thi'one,  intending  to 
enforce  his  imperial  authority  over  the  republics  of  that 
country,  who  had  for  some  time  been  disposed  to  be  unruly, 
and  who  at  best  rendered  him  only  a  nommal,  and  not  very 
gi-acious,  allegiance.  He  marched  towards  Rome,  for  tlie 
double  purpose  of  settling  his  difficulties  with  its  inhabitants 
and  with  the  pope,  and  of  bemg  crowned  by  the  latter. 
Affairs  were  in  a  complicated  state  in  that  city.  The  pope 
was  at  war  with  its  inhabitants,  whom  he  had  in  fact  excom- 
municated in  mass,  and  pronounced  a  '  heavenly  curse '  upon 
the  '  eternal  city,'  and  deprived  them  of  divine  service  during 
the  Easter  holy  days.  He  was  at  war,  too,  with  the  jSiorman 
sovereigns  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
were  the  old,  unadjusted,  and  long-resisted  claims  of  the  Holy 
See  upon  the  empire.  But  Adrian  and  Barbarossa  soon 
found  that  the  line  in  wliich  their  respective  interests  coin- 
cided was  longer  than  that  of  their  differences;  and  they 


22         ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

united  against  the  Romans  and  the  Neapolitans.  The  imme- 
diate consequence  of  this  coalition  was  the  dispersion  to  the 
winds  of  the  new  commonwealth  of  Rome,  and  the  death  of 
Arnaldo.  The  patriot  and  reformer,  whose  misfortune  it  was 
to  be  '  born  out  of  due  time,'  was  offered  as  a  '  sacrifice  of 
peace-oifering '  by  the  emperor  and  the  pope.  He  was  cru- 
dfied ;  his  body  was  burned,  and  his  ashes  were  thrown  into 
tlie  Tiber,  in  order  that  his  followers  might  have  no  memorial 
oa*  rehc  of  their  leader.  And  though  the  '  Arnaldists,'  as  his 
partisans  were  for  a  long  time  called,  were  not  anniliilated  by 
his  death,  yet  they  gradually  sunk  in  the  struggle  with  the 
overwhelming  power  of  the  pope  and  his  cohorts  of  bishops, 
abbots,  and  monks,  and  at  length  disappeared  as  completely 
from  the  earth  as  did  the  ashes  of  their  leader. 

"VVe  know  little  of  this  Arnaldo  from  any  contemporaneous 
source,  except  the  pages  of  Roman  Catholic  writers,  who 
were  not  likely  to  do  him  justice.  But,  by  their  own  show- 
ing, it  is  manifest  that  he  contended  for  truth  and  justice. 
One  of  them,  Tritemius,  makes  Amaldo  to  preach  to  the 
pope  and  cardinals  in  the  following  terms:  'I  call  heaven 
and  earth  to  witness  that  I  have  announced  to  you  those 
things  which  the  Lord  has  commanded.  But  ye  desj)ise  both 
me  and  your  Creator.  Nor  is  it  wonderful  that  ye  are  about 
to  put  me,  a  sinful  man,  to  death,  for  preaching  to  you  tlie 
truth,  since  if  even  Saint  Peter  were  to  arise  from  the  dead 
this  day,  and  were  to  reprove  your  many  vices,  ye  would  by 
no  means  spare  him.'  ^  Who  can  be  at  a  loss,  after  reading 
this,  either  as  to  the  probable  doctrines  and  character  of 
Arnaldo,  or  the  reasons  which  mduced  the  Roman  hierarchy 

5  '  Ego  testem  invoco  coelum  et  terram,  quod  annunciaveram  vobis  ea  qure  mihi 
Dominus  prsecepit:  vos  autem  temnitis  me  et  Creatorem  vestrum.  Nee  mirum  si 
me  hominem  peccatorem  vobis  veritatem  annunciatem  morti  tradituri  estis,  cum 
etiam  si  S.  Pelrus  hcdie  resurgeret  et  vitia  vestra,  quae  nimis  multiplicata  sunt, 
reprehendcret,  ei  minime  parceretis.'  Tritemius ;  as  quoted  in  the  North  British 
Review^  No.  II.,  p.  4C8, 


GIROLAMO    SATONAROLA.  23 

to  condemn  those  doctrines,  and  to  put  to  death  the- man  who 
held  them. 

Vni.     Girolamo  Savonarola, 

More  than  three  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Arnaldo 
da  Brescia,  Girolamo  Savonarola  was  raised  up  to  resist  at 
once  the  despotism  of  the  civil  governments,  and  the  corruption 
of  manners,  which  prevailed  every  where,  both  among  the 
people  and  the  clergy.  Respecting  the  character  of  this  man 
it  is  no  easy  matter  to  arrive  at  the  truth.  By  the  Roman 
Catholic  historians,  he  is,  without  exception,  spoken  of  as  a  tur- 
bulent, ambitious  fanatic,  an  enemy  to  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
government,  a  deceiver  of  the  people ;  in  a  word,  a  vile  im- 
postor. On  the  other  hand,  he  has  been  held  up  as  an  Italian 
Luther,  a  glorious  reformer  and  martyr.  The  truth  we  ap- 
prehend to  be  simply  this.  Savonarola  was  a  man  of  singu- 
lar integrity,  sanctity,  and  patriotism.  He  aimed  at  effecting 
a  thorough  reformation  of  the  maiuiers  of  the  people  and  of 
the  clergy,  rather  than  of  the  doctrines  and  ritual  of  the  church. 
And  although  he  considered  the  profligacy  of  the  hierarchy 
of  Rome  to  be  the  fountain  whence  flowed  the  corruptions 
which  pervaded  the  community,  yet  he  seems  not  to  have 
comprehended  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  reform  of  the  erro- 
neous doctrmes  and  practices  of  the  Romish  Church,  in  order 
to  effect  that  reformation  in  manners  which  he  so  earnestly 
sought.  It  must  be  admitted,  too,  that  the  fervor  of  his  zeal 
led  him  into  extravagance,  and  that,  in  prosecutmg  his  plans 
of  reform,  he  sometimes  yielded  to  the  illusions  of  an  over- 
heated imagination,  and  suffered  himself  to  be  persuaded  that 
he  possessed  supernatural  gifts.  This  was  probably  one  of 
the  effects  of  liis  monastic  hfe.  But,  admitting  all  this,  we 
think  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  he  was  a  good  man, 
and  sincerely  desu^ed  to  remedy  the  glaring  evils  of  his  times. 
Certainly  there  were  few  men  of  the  fifteenth  century,  to  be 


24         ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

compared  with  him,  either  as  a  Christian  or  a  patriot.  These 
things  premised,  we  proceed  to  give  some  account  of  his  life 
and  actions.  ^ 

Girolamo  Savonarola  was  born  at  Ferrara,  in  the  year 
1452.  From  his  childhood  he  was  an  enthusiast  in  matters 
of  religion,  and  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  monastic 
Hfe.  It  was  the  intention  of  his  parents  that  he  should 
become  a  physician ;  but  liis  choice  was  to  be  a  monk.  Ac- 
cordingly he  entered  a  convent  of  Dominicans  at  Bologna, 
without  the  consent,  as  some  say,  of  his  father,  where  he  soon 
showed  great  fondness  for  study.  In  process  of  time  he 
became  distinguished  as  an  academical  lecturer ;  but  his  first 
attempts  in  the  pulpit  were  unpromising.  His  voice  was 
feeble  and  harsh,  and  his  manner  was  ungraceful  and  un- 
pleasant. But  by  great  and  persevering  efforts  he  conquered 
all  these  defects,  and  in  a  few  years  became  an  admirable 
orator,  as  well  as  profound  scholar.  It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  he  returned  to  the  walls  of  his  cloister,  either  from 
a  desire  to  prosecute  still  further  his  studies,  or  a  fear  that 
popularity  might  injure  his  spirituality.  Here  he  not  only 
renewed  his  self-denial,  and  his  penances,  with  more  rigor 
than  ever,  but  also  pursued  the  study  of  metaphysics  and 
tlieology  with  great  zeal.  And  here,  it  has  been  said,  the 
idea  of  his  divine  mission,  for  the  first  time,  entered  his 
mind. 

In  1484,  he  delivered  a  series  of  discourses  on  the  book  of 
Revelation,  at  Brescia,  in  which  he  attacked  the  luxury  and 
vices  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  most  powerful  manner,  and 
announced  to  them  that  the  walls  of  their  city  would  one  day 

6  Along  with  others  who  have  done  great  injustice  to  the  memory  of  Savonarola, 
must  be  ranked  Mr.  Roscoe,  in  his  Life  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  Sismondi,  in  hia 
admirable  History  of  the  Italian  Republics,  is  far  more  accurate  and  impartial. 
John  Francis  Budoeus,  in  his  youth,  published  a  dissertation  unfavorable  to  Savon- 
arola, of  which  he  afterwards  wrote,  in  the  most  candid  spirit,  a  complete  refuta- 
tion. 


GIROLAMO    SAVONAROLA.  25 

jbe  covered  with  blood,  as  a  divine  punisliment  for  their  sin?. 
A  remarkable  fulfilment  of  this  prediction,  as  his  followers 
believed,  took  place  two  years  after  his  death,  when  Brescia 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  French. 

In  1489,  Savonarola  took  up  his  residence  at  Florence,  in 
the  convent  of  St.  Mark,  which  belonged  to  his  Order.  Lo- 
renzo de  Medici,  the  destroyer  of  his  country's  hberties,  ad- 
.niring  his  talents  and  dreading  his  popularity,  endeavored  to 
gain  him  to  his  interest.  But  Savonarola  resisted  all  his 
advances,  and  would  not  even  deign  to  visit  the  man  whom 
he  regarded  as  an  usurper.  But  it  would  seem  that  Lorenzo 
entertained  a  great  respect  for  his  piety  as  well  as  his  talents, 
for,  when  on  his  dying  bed,  he  sent  for  him,  with  the  desire 
of  obtaining  absolution  at  his  hands.  The  stern  and  faithful 
monk  this  time  obeyed  the  summons,  and  repaired  to  the 
ducal  palace.  To  the  dying  man  he  propounded  three  very 
important  questions,  namely :  Whether  he  had  an  entire  con- 
fidence in  the  mercy  of  God  ?  "\Yhether  he  Avas  willing  to 
make  restitution  of  all  the  goods  which  he  had  unlawfully 
taken  from  any  one  ?  And  whether  he  was  prepared  to 
restore  to  the  Florentines  their  republic,  which  he  had  over- 
thrown ?  To  the  first  two,  Lorenzo  returned  an  answer  in 
the  afiirmative  ;  but  as  to  the  third  he  was  silent !  Wliere- 
upon  Savonarola  left  him  without  administering  the  rite  of 
absolution. 

During  the  government  of  Pletro,  the  haughty  and  luxuri- 
ous successor  of  Lorenzo,  the  influence  of  Savonarola  in-' 
creased,  and  his  enthusiasm  kept  pace  Avith  his  popularity. 
His  fervid  eloquence  drew  admiring  thousands  to  every 
church  in  which  he  preached.  "VYith  all  the  force  of  his  vivid 
Itahan  imagination,  he  painted  the  luxury  and  immorality 
which  prevailed  among  all  classes  of  the  citizens,  the  disor- 
ders of  the  church,  the  corruptions  of  the  prelates,  the  troubles 
3 


2G  ITALY   BEFORE    THE    EEFORMATIOls'. 

of  tlie  State,  and  tlie  tyranny  of  its  rulers ;  and  announced  the 
coming  judgments  of  God.  Nor  was  his  preaching  in  vain. 
An  extraordinary  reformation  of  manners  took  place.  Lux- 
ury was  repressed,  and  the  general  immorality  was  greatly 
diminished.  The  expulsion  of  the  Medici  took  place,  and 
Savonafola  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  a  popular  government 
arise  on  the  ruins  of  the  despotism  of  that  ambitious  house. 
His  influence  was  all  in  favor  of  the  reestablishment  of  the 
republic.  Still,  he  bent  his  greatest  efforts  to  that  moral 
reform  which  he  deemed  to  be  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
perpetuity  of  the  new  government  as  to  individual  happiness 
and  salvation. 

IX.     Savonarola  and  Alexander    VL 

But  things  were  rapidly  coming  to  a  crisis.  Savonarola 
had  many  enemies  in  Florence,  among  the  Franciscans  and 
Augustinians,  as  well  as  among  the  adherents  of  the  Medici. 
These  did  all  they  could  to  overthrow  his  influence.  But  a 
blow  was  preparing  for  his  devoted  head,  in  another  and 
higher  quarter.  Savonarola  had  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that 
reform  ought  to  commence  with  the  head  of  the  church,  and 
in  his  invectives  he  had  not  spared  the  then  reigning  pontiff, 
the  infamous  Borgia,  Alexander  VI.  He  did  not  hesitate  to 
hold  up  to  scorn  crimes  which  disgraced  humanity,  and 
grieved  all  serious  people. 

The  consequence  was  what  it  required  no  gift  of  prophecy 
to  foresee ;  the  Pope  hurled  a  bull  of  excommunication  at 
him,  and  threatened  the  Florentine  republic  with  an  interdict, 
if  it  allowed  him  to  preach.  At  the  request  of  the  senate,  he 
desisted  for  a  time ;  but  soon  he  came  forth  from  his  cloister, 
and  in  his  turn  denounced  the  Pope  as  an  usui-per,  declared 
the  Church  had  no  human  head,  and  pronounced  Alexander 
to  be  no  Christian  at  all,  and  therefore  not  worthy  to  be  a 
bishop !     The  irritated  pontiff  instantly  despatched  a  Fran- 


SAVONAROLA  AND  ALEXANDER  VI.  27 

ciscan,  Francesco  de  Pouille,  to  Florence,  to  denounce  Savon 
arola  as  a  heresiarch,  and  to  threaten  the  republic  Tvdth  an 
immediate  interdiction,  and  the  confiscation  of  the  projiei-ty 
of  its  merchants  in  foreign  parts,  miless  the  senate  should 
prevent  liim  from  preachuig  any  more.  The  Florentines 
became  alarmecl,  and,  despairing  of  the  help  of  France, 
pelded  to  the  command  of  the  Nuncio. 

Pouille  next  challenged  Savonarola  to  submit  the  truth  of 
his  doctrines  to  the  test  of  fire.  He  himself  offered  to  walk 
through  the  flames  with  his  adversary.  Savonarola  declined 
the  di-eadful  contest;  but  Bonvicini,  one  of  liis  disciples, 
accepted  the  challenge.  Pouille,  in  turn,  refused  to  go 
through  the  proposed  ordeal  with  any  one  but  the  heresiarch 
himself,  as  he  called  Savonarola.  But  a  Florentine  Francis- 
can, of  the  name  of  Rondinelli,  offered  to  be  his  substitute. 
The  whole  city,  as  well  as  the  government,  entered  earnestly 
into  the  affair.  The  time  and  place  were  appointed.  A  great 
multitude  assembled.  But  a  protracted  dispute  took  place 
on  the  gi'ound.  The  Franciscans  required  that  the  Domini- 
can, Bonvicini,  should  change  his  dress,  fearing  he  might  be 
an  enchanter.  They  next  insisted  that  he  should  not  carry 
the  host  with  him,  considering  it  impious  to  expose  the  body 
of  Clu'ist  to  the  risk  of  being  consumed  in  the  flames.  But 
on  this  point  Savonarola  was  inflexible.  Li  the  mean  while, 
the  day  was  passing  away,  and  a  heavy  shower  came  on, 
which  extmguished  the  kindled  fire,  and  dispersed  the  disap- 
pointed crowd. 

The  fickle  people  were  dissatisfied  when  they  heard  the  re- 
port that  Savonarola  had  refused  the  trial,  and  without  waiting, 
or  caring,  to  know  the  time  cause,  they  turned  against  him. 
From  that  moment  his  influence  was  gone  with  the  masses. 
The  next  day  he  preached  with  great  fervor  his  last  sermon, 
and  at  its  close  he  bade  farewell  to  his  friends.  That  night, 
during  a  riot,  in  which  many  of  liis  partisans,  and  friends  of 


28  ITALY  BEFORE  THE  EEFORMATION. 

the  new  order  of  things  were  killed,  he  was  arrested  in  the 
convent,  with  two  other  monks,  and  dragged  to  prison.  A 
revolution  took  place,  the  republic  was  overthrown,  and  the 
Medici  were  restored.  Intelligence  of  these  events  was 
speedily  transmitted  to  Rome.  Alexander  demanded  that 
Savonarola  and  his  companions  should  be  brought  to  Rome 
and  tried ;  but  the  government  of  Florence  refused  to  send 
them.  Two  commissaries  were  despatched  from  Rome  to 
try  them.  After  having  submitted  to  torture,  they  were 
condemned  to  undergo  death  by  fire.  On  the  23d  of  May, 
1498,  a  pile  of  fagots  was  erected  on  the  very  spot  where 
the  voluntary  trial  by  fire  was  to  have  taken  place  a  few 
weeks  before,  and  the  three  monks,  after  having  been  de- 
graded, were  bound  to  the  stake.  When  the  presiding  Bishop 
declared  them  separated  from  the  Church,  Savonarola  ex- 
claimed, '  from  the  militant,'  intimating  that  he  believed  that 
they  were  about  to  enter  the  Church  triumphant.  The  fire 
was  immediately  applied,  and  soon  their  bodies  were  reduced 
to  ashes,  which,  by  order  of  the  magistrates,  were  gathered 
up  and  thrown  into  the  Arno.  Thus  ended  the  life  of  Savon- 
arola, one  of  the  many  who  have  suffered  as  martyrs,  for 
resisting  the  corruptions  and  the  tyranny  of  Rome. 

X.     Influence  of  the  Revival  of  Learning. 

The  '  Revival  of  Letters,'  Avhich  commenced  almost  with 
the  daAvn  of  the  fourteenth  century,  shed  its  genial  influences 
upon  Italy,  as  well  as  upon  Germany,  and  the  other  portions 
of  western  Europe.  One  of  its  most  immediate  and  palpable 
effects  was  the  introduction  of  a  purer  style  in  the  writing  of 
Latin,  —  a  reformation  which  was  greatly  needed,  —  for  that 
noble  language  had  become  greatly  corrupted  and  debased. 
In  consequence  of  this  happy  improvement,  the  Bullarium, 
the  collection  of  the  bulls  or  letters  of  the  popes,  underwent 
numerous  necessary  corrections,  and  the  standard  of  scholar- 


INFLUENCE    OF   THE    REVIVAL    OF   LEARNING.  29 

ship  was  raised.  Barlaam,  a  monk  in  Calabria,  and  his  dis- 
ciple, Leontius  Pilatus,  were  among  the  first  teachers  of 
Greek  in  Italj,  at  the  commencement  of  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing. The  former  was  the  instractor  of  Petrarch,  the  latter 
of  Boccaccio,  in  that  noble  language. 

This  incipient  movement  in  favor  of  letters,  was  greatly 
strengthened  by  the  immigration  into  Italy  of  many  learned 
Greeks,  upon  the  downfall  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  the  year  1453. 
These  men  brought  with  them  such  of  their  literary  treasures 
as  they  were  able  to  save  from  the  pillage  of  their  native 
cities  by  the  Mohammedan  barbarians.  They  had  been  pre- 
ceded by  the  learned  ambassadors  whom  the  last  of  the  long 
line  of  feeble  Greek  emperors  had  sent  to  Rome,  to  implore 
help  against  the  deadly  enemies  of  Christianity,  in  all  its 
forms  and  sects. 

About  the  same  time  the  art  of  printmg  was  invented,  and 
by  rapidly  increasing  the  number  of  copies  of  valuable  books, 
and  diminishing  their  price,  contributed  much  to  the  promo- 
tion of  learning.  Ancient  literature  began  now  to  be  culti- 
vated with  great  enthusiasm.  The  treasures  of  science  and 
of  knowledge,  which  had  long  remained  locked  up  in  the 
learned  languages  Avere  brought  forth,  either  in  translations, 
or  in  the  languages  in  which  they  were  composed.  A  great 
impulse  was  given  to  the  human  mind.  Light  was  poured 
on  many  subjects  respecting  which  great  ignorance  had  long 
prevailed.  Men  were  excited  to  inquire,  to  examine,  to 
judge  on  every  subject.  Old  errors  began  to  be  investigated, 
then  doubted,  then  rejected.  Philosoi^hy,  pohtics,  and 
science,  Avere  submitted  to  scrutiny.  Even  religion  did  not 
escape.  When  compared  with  the  early  fathers,  and  still 
more  with  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  which  now,  after  a  thousand 
years  of  entombment,  began  to  be  published  and  read  in  their 
3* 


30         ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

original  tongues,  Christianity  was  found  to  have  undergone 
very  strange  transmutations. 

XI.     Dante, 

And  ahhough  it  is  true  that  a  taste  for  literature  does  not 
insure  a  taste  for  religion,  and  although  many  of  the  patrons 
of  learning  in  Italy,''  such  as  Sixtus  lY.,  Alexander  VI.,  Julius 
IL,  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  and  Leo  X.,  were  any  thing  else 
than  religious  men,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the  progress  of 
learning  had  a  tendency  favorable,  on  the  whole,  to  the  cause 
of  true  Christianity.  Not  only  did  it  pour  a  flood  of  light,  — 
reflected  from  the  Scriptures,  recovered  from  the  dark  clois- 
ters of  monks,  and  from  the  pages  of  the  early  Christian 
authors,  —  but  it  also  excited  writers,  both  in  poetry  and 
prose,  to  attack  the  flxagrant  corruptions  of  Christianity  which 
they  saw  in  the  Romish  Church.  No  Protestant  has  ever 
said  harder  things  against  the  '  mother  of  harlots,'  than  some 
of  the  Italian  authors.  Dante's  Divina  Comedia  contains 
very  many  passages  full  of  the  most  cutting  satire  upon  the 
conduct  of  the  Roman  hierarchy,  —  popes,  cardinals,  bishops, 
priests,  and  monks.  Many  of  his  views  respecting  the  gospel, 
the  divine  and  supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures  in  matters 
of  faith  and  practice,  were  such  as  every  true  Protestant 
holds.  This  we  could  easily  show  by  citations,  if  it  were 
necessary.     Let  one  or  two  passages  sufiice. 

He  does  not  hesitate  to  compare  modem  Rome  to  the  idol- 


"i  Bembo  and  Sadoleti  were  iwo  of  the  most  learned  men  of  their  day.  And  yet 
Bembo  signed  the  infamous  bull  authorizing  and  vindicating  the  sale  cf  indul- 
gences ;  and  Sadoleti  disgraced  his  pen  by  writing  and  signing  the  bull  which  con- 
demned Luther  as  a  heretic  ;  ordaining  that,  if  he  continued  obstinate,  he  should  be 
seized  and  sent  to  Rome  ;  and  authorizing  the  sentence  of  excommunication  and 
interdict  to  be  pronounced  against  all  poM'ers,  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  (the  Emperor 
excepted,)  secular  or  regular,  dukes,  marquises,  universities,  and  communities,  by 
whom  he  might  be  received  or  harbored.  Roscoc's  Leo  X.,  Vol.  III.,  App.  Nos.  cli. 
and  clix. 


PETRARCH   AND    OTHERS.  31 

atrous  Babylon  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  in  one  place  uses  the 
following  language : 

•  Of  shepherds  Uke  to  you,  th'  Evangehst 
Was  Avare,  ■when  her,  who  sits  iipon  the  waves, 
With  Ivings  in  fihhy  whoredom  he  beheld ; 
She  who  with  seven  heads  towered  at  her  buth. 
And  from  ten  horns  her  proof  of  gloiy  drew, 
Long  as  her  spoiise  in  virtue  took  dehght. 
Of  gold  and  silver  ye  have  made  your  God, 
DitF'ring  wherein  from  the  idolater, 
But  that  he  worships  one,  a  hundred  ye. 
Ah !  Constantine,  to  how  much  ill  gave  bhth, 
Not  thy  conversion,  but  that  plenteous  dower 
Which  the  first  wealthy  father  gained  from  thee  1 '  ^ 

He  peopled  his  Hell,  as  well  as  his  Purgatory,  with  Komish 
clergy,  from  popes  do\^^i  to  mendicant  friars.  And  he  even 
seems  sometimes  to  indulge  in  a  prophetic  strain  in  regard  to 
the  downfall  of  the  papacy,  with  all  its  corruptions. 

'  Yet  it  may  chance,  ere  long,  the  Vatican, 
And  other  most  selected  parts  of  Rome, 
That  were  the  grave  of  Peter's  soldiery. 
Shall  be  delivered  from  th'  adult'rous  bond.'  ^ 

In  his  treatise  on  Monarchy,  he  is  even  more  severe  on  the 
abuses  of  the  church,  than  in  his  poems.  He  would  deprive 
the  popes  of  temporal  authority,  and  attacks  tradition,  which 
lias  justly  been  called  the  main  pillar  of  the  Eoman  Catholic 
Church.  For  doing  this,  his  Monarchia  found  a  place  in  the 
Index  of  Forbidden  Books,  in  the  year  1559,  where  it  is 
wonderful  that  the  Divina  Comedia  is  not  to  be  found  also. 

XII.     Petrarch  and  Others. 
Nor  was  Petrarch  less  severe  upon  Rome  and  its  hierar- 
chy than  Dante.     In  his  Latin  eclogues  and  Italian  sonnets, 

8  Inf.  c.  xix.  conf.  Purgf.  c.  xxxii.,  Carey's  Translation. 

9  Parad.  c.  ix.,  Carey's  Translation. 


32         ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

there  are  many  strokes  of  satire,  sometimes  concealed,  some- 
times open.  The  Papal  See  is  characterized  as  'impious 
Babylon ;  avaricious  Babylon ;  the  school  of  error ;  the  tem- 
ple of  heresy ;  the  forge  of  fraud ;  the  hell  of  the  living.'  ^" 
The  following  stanzas  will  give  a  good  illustration  of  the 
freedom  and  pungency  with  which  he  occasionally  wrote 
respecting  the  Roman  See. 

'  The  fire  of  WTatliful  heaven  alight, 
And  all  thy  harlot  tresses  smite, 

Base  city !  thou,  from  humble  fare. 
Thy  acorn?  and  thy  water,  rose 
To  greatness,  rich  with  others'  Avoes, 

Rejoicing-  in  the  ruin  thou  didst  bear. 

Foul  nest  of  treason  !    Is  there  aught 
Wlierewith  the  si:)acious  world  is  fraught 

Of  bad  or  vile — 'tis  hatch'd  in  thee ; 
Who  rcvellest  in  thy  costly  meats. 
Thy  precious  wines,  and  ciuious  seats, 

And  all  the  pride  of  luxury. 

The  while  within  thy  secret  lialls, 
Old  men  in  seemly  festivals 

With  buxom  girls  in  dance  are  going ; 
And  in  the  midst  old  Beelzebub 
Eyes,  tlu-ough  his  glass,  the  motley  club. 

The  fire  with  sturdy  belloA^'S  blo-wdng. 

In  former  days  thou  wast  not  laid 
On  down,  nor  under  cooling  shade ; 

Thou  naked  to  the  winds  wast  given, 
And  through  the  shai-p  and  thoniy  road 
Thy  feet  without  the  sandals  trod  5 

But  now  thy  life  is  such  it  sAvells  to  Heaven.'  ^^ 

10  Petrarchi  Opera,  torn.  iii.  p.  149. 

l^  Le  Rime  del  Petrarcha,  edit.  Itod    Castelvetro,  torn.  i.  p.  325.  — quoted  by  Dr. 
McCrie,  iu  his  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Itahj,  p.  27. 


PETRARCH    AND    OTHERS.  33 

But  if  Petrarch  is  severe  upon  the  popes,  the  clergy,  and 
the  vices  of  Rome,  in  his  poems,  he  is  far  more  so  in  his  con- 
fidential letters,  which,  we  may  remark  in  passing,  he  left 
carefully  collected  and  arranged  for  publication.  In  his  day, 
Avignon,  in  France,  was  the  seat  of  the  papacy.  Thither 
intestine  troubles  and  factions  compelled  the  legitimate  line 
of  popes  to  emigrate,  and  there  to  abide  during  sevemy 
years,  from  1307  to  1377.  It  was  a  species  of  'carrying 
away  into  Babylon,'  or  rather  of  removal  from  one  Babylon 
to  another!  There,  lived  and  reigned  Clement  V.,  John 
XXII.  (of  infamous  memory),  Benedict  XI.,  Clement  VI., 
Innocent  VI.,  Urban  V.,  and  Gregory  XI.  And  whatever 
Avignon  had  been,  before  it  became  the  Papal  See,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  long  before  seventy  years  passed  avray,  '  Baby- 
lon on  the  Rhone '  very  greatly  resembled  her  sister  on  the 
Tiber.  '  I  am  at  present,'  says  Petrarch  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  a  particular  friend,  '  in  the  western  Babylon,  than  which 
the  sun  never  beheld  any  thing  more  hideous ;  and  beside  the 
fierce  Rhone,  where  the  successors  of  the  poor  fishermen  now 
live  as  kings.  Here  the  credulous  crowd  of  Christians  are 
caught,  m  the  name  of  Jesus,  but  by  the  arts  of  Belial ;  and, 
being  stripped  of  their  scales,  are  fried  to  fill  the  belly  of 
gluttons.  Go  to  India,  or  wherever  you  choose ;  but  avoid 
Babylon,  if  you  do  not  Avish  to  go  down  alive  to  hell.  What- 
ever you  may  have  heard  or  read  of,  as  to  perfidy  and  fraud, 
pride,  incontinence,  and  unbridled  lust,  impiety,  and  wicked- 
ness of  every  kind,  you  will  find  here  collected  and  heaped 
together.  Rejoice,  and  glory  in  this,  O  Babylon,  situated  on 
the  Rhone,  that  thou  art  the  enemy  of  the  good,  the  friend  of 
the  bad,  the  asylum  of  wild  beasts,  the  whore  that  hast  com- 
mitted fornication  with  the  kings  of  the  earth !  Thou  art  she 
whom  the  inspired  evangelist  saw  in  the  spirit;  yes,  thee, 
and  none  but  thee,  he  saw  *  sitting  upon  many  waters.'  See 
thy  dress,  '  a  woman  clothed  in  purple  and  scarlet.'     Dost 


34  ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

thou  know  thyself,  Babylon  ?  Certainly  what  follows  agrees 
to 'thee  and  none  else  — '  mother  of  fornications  and  abomina- 
tions of  the  earth.'  But  hear  the  rest  — '  I  saw,'  says  the 
evangelist,  '  a  woman  drunk  with  the  blood  of  the  saints,  and 
the  blood  of  the  martyrs  of  Jesus.'  Point  out  another  to 
whom  this  is  applicable  but  thee.'  ^  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  Petrarch  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  as  well  as  a  poet 
and  diplomatist,  and  intimately  acquainted  with  several  of  the 
popes  who  reigned  at  Avignon.  No  one,  therefore,  could 
have  had  a  better  opportunity  for  knowing  the  luxury,  the 
heresies,  and  the  vices  which  reigned  in  that  Church  in  his 
day. 

The  writings  of  Boccaccio,  Poggio  Bracciolini,  Ariosto, 
Berni,  Baptista,  and  very  many  other  Italian  authors,  from 
the  revival  of  learning  to  the  Reformation,  abound  in  severe 
ridicule  and  invective,  aimed  especially  at  the  vices  of  the 
clergy  and  monks.  ^^  Laurentius  Valla,  ^  who,'  it  is  affirmed 
by  Erasmus, ^^  ^rescued  hterature  from  the  grave,  and  re- 
stored to  Italy  the  splendor  of  her  ancient  eloquence,'  wrote 
with  great  ability  against  the  papal  claims  and  abuses.  He 
lived  m  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

XIII.     JS^eed  of  Reformation  felt  hj  some  in  the  Church. 

In  the  process  of  time,  the  state  of  things  in  the  Roman 
hierarchy  became  worse  and  worse.  The  popes  became 
merely  secular  princes  in  their  spirit  and  character ;  and  the 
papal  court  obtained  even  the  degrading  reputation  of  being 

12  Epistolce  Familiares,  ep.  4, 12, 15,  16,  quoted  in  Dr.  McCrie's  Hist,  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Italy. 

13  Ever  since  the  suppression  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  it  has  been  far  more 
difficult  to  publish  any  thing  in  that  country,  against  the  errors  of  Rome,  and  the 
conduct  of  the  clergy,  than  before  that  epoch.  Still,  something  has  from  time  to 
time  been  done,  under  one  form  or  another.  Of  this,  Nicolini's  Arnaldo  da  Brescia 
is  a  remarkable  proof 

H  Erasmi  Epistolce^  lib.  vii.  ep.  3. 


REFORMATION  A   DIFFICULT    WORK.  35 

the  most  faithless  and  unmoral  of  all  courts  in  the  whole  civ- 
ilized world!  Every  thing  sacred  was  prostituted  to  base 
avarice.  Every  thing  was  sold  for  money  —  ecclesiastical 
offices  and  aj^pointments,  absolutions,  indulgences,  canoniza- 
tions, etc.  etc.  Cabals,  intrigue,  and  bribery,  reigned  at 
Rome.  At  length  the  evil  became  almost  insupportable. 
Even  from  among  the  clergy  themselves,  some  were  raised 
up  to  preach  the  necessity  of  reformation  in  the  Church. 
This  demand  was  loudly  made  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth.  It  manifested  itself  in  the 
Councils  of  Constance,  of  Pisa,  and  of  the  Lateran.  It  was 
pressed  upon  the  attention  of  the  pontiffs,  by  men  who  felt 
the  necessity  of  a  reformation.  But  they  received,  in  1516, 
a  bull  enjoining  upon  them  to  cease  to  treat  in  their  sermons, 
of  such  subjects,  and  no  more  to  speak  of  the  coming  of  Anti- 
christ. In  this  way  the  popes  endeavored  to  silence  the 
clamors  for  reform  from  so  dangerous  ^  quarter.  And  this 
state  of  things  continued  until  a  cry  was  raised  m  Germany, 
and  the  sounds  Antichrist  and  Babylon,  as  designating  Rome, 
filled  all  Christendom,  and  for  awhile  seemed  to  strike  the 
papal  court  dumb. 

XIV.     Reformation  a  Dirfflcidt   Worh 

But  however  corrupt  the  state  of  the  Church  had  become, 
and  however  much  this  was  felt  by  some  men  in  Italy,  the 
great  majority  of  the  common  people  were  too  indiffeijent  to 
religion,  to  care  about  any  thing  beyond  the  imposing  forms 
and  ceremonies  to  which  they  had  so  long  been  accustomed. 
Too  ignorant  and  too  sensual  to  appreciate  a  spiritual  reli- 
gion, the  idea  of  a  reformation  in  the  Church,  and  of  a  return 
to  primitive  Christianity,  never  entered  their  minds. 

And  as  to  the  nobles  and  others  of  a  rank,  in  point  of  intel- 
ligence and  position  in  society,  superior  to  the  masses,  too 
many  of  them  shared  in  the  profuse  expenditure,  through  a 


36  ITALY  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

thousand  different  channels,  of  the  enormous  sums  of  money, 
which,  under  one  pretence  or  another,  flowed  into  the  treas- 
ury of  St.  Peter,  to  allow  suffering  humanity  to  expect  any 
thing,  in  the  way  of  salutary  change,  from  that  quarter. 
They  loved  the  oppressors  of  mankind,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  they  permitted  them  to  share  the  spoils.  What  marvel, 
then,  if,  whilst  some  men  in  Italy  mourned  over  the  degen- 
eracy of  the  times,  and  sighed  for  a  reformation,  that  blessed 
movement,  when  it  did  commence,  should  encounter  the  op- 
position which  it  did  in  that  country  ? 


CHAPTER  n. 

EXTEAXCE  OF  THE  REFORMATION  INTO  ITALY. 

We  have  arrived  .at  tlie  epoch  when  the  Reformation 
began  to  agitate  the  Christian  world.  In  the  year  1517, 
Luther  published  his  Theses,  or  propositions,  in  Wittem- 
berg,  and  soon  all  Germany  was  aroused  by  the  din  of  the 
conflict  which  from  that  date  was  fairly  commenced.  Nor 
was  it  long  until  the  truth,  from  Luther's  pen,  reached  the 
South  of  Germany,  transcended  the  Alps,  and  came  down 
upon  the  plains  of  Italy.  And,  even  in  that  land  where  the 
papacy  had  its  strong-hold,  there  were  soon  found  hearts  that 
responded  favorably  to  its  appeals. 

I.  PreiKiration  for  the  Reformation^  —  Revival  of  Letters. 

Who  can  read  the  history  of  the  Reformation  without 
being  struck  with  the  wonderful  manner  in  M^hich  God 
ordained  every  thing  in  relation  to  it  ?  Had  Luther  arisen  a 
century  or  two  before  he  did,  he  would  have  found  none  of 
that  preparation  which  the  revival  of  letters  effected  for 
him  and  his  doctrines.  Thick  darkness  then  rested  upon  the 
people  of  Western  Europe ;  the  learned  languages  were 
almost  wholly  neglected.  Greek  literature  was  not  studied ; 
scarcely  a  man  being  found  in  all  Italy,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, who  understood  the  characters  in  Avhich  it  was  writ- 
ten. During  several  centuries,  only  now  and  then  an  iso- 
lated individual  could  be  found  in  all  Italy  that  knew  even 
a  smattering  of  Hebrew.  To  unlearned  eyes  its  charac- 
ters appeared  strange,  if  not  cabalistic.  Even  the  Latin, 
4 


38       .   ENTRANCE  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

though  read  and  spoken  by  all  those  who  may  be  considered 
scholars  during  that  period,  was  but  a  barbarous  corruption 
of  the  noble  language  in  which  Virgil  and  Cicero  composed 
their  immortal  works. 

II.     John  Reuchlin. 

But  when  Luther  appeared  on  the  stage,  the  revival  of 
letters  had  prepared  many  of  the  first  minds  of  that  age  for 
the  reception  of  his  glorious  doctrines.  The  study  of  Latin, 
and  even  of  Greek,  Avas  prosecuted  with  much  zeal,  not  only 
in  Italy  but  also  in  Germany.  The  celebrated  John  Reuch- 
lin,  of  Suabia,  had  already  done  much  to  promote  the 
knowledge  of  both  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  Germany,  before 
Luther  commenced  his  heaven-commissioned  work.  That 
celebrated  scholar  was  the  son  of  a  worthy  burgher,  of  Pforz- 
heim, in  the  south  part  of  Germany.  Whilst  yet  a  youth,  he 
was  sent  by  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  with  his  son,  to  the 
university  of  Paris,  at  that  epoch  by  far  the  most  celebrated 
in  Western  Europe.  There  he  supported  himself,  whilst 
prosecuting  his  studies,  by  copying  Homer  and  other  Greek 
authors  for  the  students  who  were  in  better  circumstances. 
It  was  at  Paris  that  he  studied  Greek  under  the  Spartan 
Hermonymos,  and  Hebrew  under  John  Weissel,  surnamed 
the  light  of  the  world.  From  the  latter  he  learned  the  first 
elements  of  those  doctrines  which  were  afterwards  better 
known  under  the  designation  of  Protestant.  Upon  his  return 
to  Germany,  he  gave  lectures  on  Greek  literature  in  Basle, 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty ;  was  soon  afterwards  made  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  new  university  of  Tubingen  in  Suabia;  and 
thence,  ten  years  later,  he  was  driven  by  his  enemies  to 
Heidelberg.  His  repeated  visits  to  Rome  greatly  augmented 
his  knowledge  and  increased  his  renown.  He  was  now  the 
first  scholar  of  his  age,  and  the  restorer  of  the  study  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew  to  Germany. 


ERASMUS.  39 

in.     Erasmus. 

Another  coadjutor  in  the  cause  of  learnhig  was  the  cele- 
brated Erasmus,  a  native  of  Rotterdam,  but  educated  chiefly 
at  Paris.  He  became  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his 
times,  and  was  courted  by  Charles  V.  of  Germany,  Henry 
Vni.  of  England,  and  Francis  I.  of  France.  From  1509  to 
1516,  he  taught  in  Oxford.  In  1516  he  went  to  Basle, 
where  he  spent  most  of  his  remaining  years.  He  never  was 
and  never  could  be  a  reformer ;  but  he  prepared  the  way  for 
others.  He  did  much  to  revive  and  diffuse  a  knowledge  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  of  which  he  was  a  distinguished  master. 
He  knew  the  truth,  but  had  not  the  courage  to  avow  it.  But 
he  did  vast  ser\ace  to  the  Reformation  by  the  exposure  of 
the  superstitions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  of  the 
ignorance  of  the  monks  and  priests. 

Many  other  men  contributed  about  this  time,  in  different 
parts  of  western  Europe,  to  the  revival  of  letters,  some  of 
them  natives ;  others,  distinguished  Greeks  from  the  East. 
Nor  were  there  wanting  learned  Jews  who  gave  instruction 
in  the  Hebrew  language  and  literature,  especially  in  Italy,  to 
those  who  were  willing  to  be  their  disciples.  The  labors  of 
all  such  had  a  certain  though  indirect  tendency  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  Reformation. 

The  art  of  printing,  too,  had  been  sufficiently  long  known 
and  employed,  to  have  accomplished  much  in  facilitating  the 
progress  of  the  reformers.  Knowledge  had  been  considera- 
bly diffused,  and  many  of  the  strongest  minds  had  by  this 
means  been  aroused  to  think  on  subjects  of  science,  nor  did 
religion  long  escape  their  investigation. 

In  no  part  of  Western  Europe  was  the  progress  of  the 
revival  of  letters  more  signal  than  in  Germany.  That  coun- 
try had,  until  this  period,  been  considered  by  the  Italians,  as 
another  Boeotia.  Its  blue-eyed,  athletic  sons  were  supposed 
to  be  scarcely  less  rude  than  in  the  days  of  Csesar  and  Taci- 


40         ENTRANCE  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

tus.  But  events  of  the  most  astounding  nature  were  about 
to  occur,  which  would  be  calculated  to  make  the  Italians 
stare  with  amazement  at  the  rapid  extension  of  learning 
north  of  the  Alps.  A  mighty  intellectual  and  moral  conflict 
was  about  to  take  place,  and  Germany  Avas  the  arena  on 
which  it  was  to  be  fought.  But  the  great  drama  was  pre- 
ceded by  two  or  three  movements  of  minor  importance.  Of 
these,  we  must  say  a  few  words  ;  for  they  had  no  inconsider- 
able influence  in  attracting  the  eyes  of  the  Italians  towards 
Germany,  and  thus  of  preparing  them  for  greater  things. 

IV.     Reuchlin's  Quarrel  with  the  Dominicans. 

In  one  of  the  first  years  of  the  16th  century,  a  baptized 
Jew,  of  Cologne,  named  Pfefferkorn,  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  Dominican  inquisitor  Hochstraten,  aided  by  the  monks 
of  his  Order,  succeeded  in  j^ersuading  the  Emjieror  Maximil- 
ian to  give  an  order  that  all  the  Jewish  books  (the  Bible 
excepted)  should  be  burned.  The  reason  alleged  was,  that 
they  were  filled  with  blasphemies  against  Jesus  Christ.  This 
was  opposed  by  Reuchlin  and  other  scholars,  as  a  gross  in- 
justice. The  emperor  requested  Reuchlin  to  examine  the 
books.  The  learned  doctor  did  so,  and  indicated  those  that 
came  within  the  category  of  such  books  as  the  imperial  order 
contemplated.  These  met  their  fate ;  but  such  as  contained 
no  attacks  upon  Christianity  were  saved.  This  enraged  the 
Dominicans,  who  commenced  a  fierce  war  upon  Reuchlin. 
They  ventured  to  charge  him  with  heresy,  and  quoted  pas- 
sages from  his  writings  to  j^rove  it.  But  the  able  professor 
confounded  them,  in  1513,  in  his  "Defence  against  his  De- 
tractors in  Cologne."  Hochstraten  assembled  a  tribunal  at 
Mayence  against  Reuchlin,  and  had  his  writings  condemned 
to  the  flames.  ReuchUn  appealed  to  Pope  Leo  X.  Leo, 
who  had  no  love  for  the  monks,  referred  the  matter  to  the 
Bishop  of  Spires,  who  declared  Reuchlin  innocent,  and  con- 


LETTERS  OF  SOME  OBSCURE  MEN.  41 

demned  the  monks  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  investigation.  This 
affair  made  a  great  noise  in  Italy,  where  men  of  learning, 
as  well  as  in  Germany,  almost  universally  took  part  with 
Reuchlin. 

V.     The  Letters  of  some  Ohscure  Men. 

Whilst  the  controversy  between  Reuchlin  and  the  Domin- 
icans was  yet  pending,  the  monks  received  a  blow  from 
another  quarter.  Ulrich  von  Hiitten^^  took  part  strongly 
with  the  learned  doctor,  for  he  was  the  mortal  enemy  of  the 
monks.  To  him  has  been  attributed  the  famous  satire  which 
appeared  in  1516,  entitled  Epistolce  Ohscurorum  Virorum.^'^ 
But  it  appears  that  a  friend  of  his,  whom  he  had  known  at 
the  University,  Crotus  Robianus,  and  other  Germans  were 
the  real  authors  of  this  production,  although  it  is  probable 
that  Hiitten  had  no  small  part  in  the  matter. 

In  this  work,  Reuchlin's  adversaries,  the  monks,  —  the 
pretended  authors  of  these  letters,  —  are  made  to  discourse 
of  the  current  affairs  of  the  day,  and  especially  of  theological 
matters,  after  their  own  fashion,  and  in  their  own  barbarous 
Latin.  They  address  the  silliest  and  most  unmeaning  ques- 
tions  to   Eratius,   their   correspondent  at   Cologne.      They 

15  This  Ulrich  von  Hiitten  was  no  common  man.  He  was  surnamed  the  Demos- 
thenes of  Germany,  on  account  of  his  philippics  against  popery.  He  "vvas  of  a 
noLle  family  of  Franconia,  and  was  no  less  distinguished  by  his  writings  than  by 
his  sword.  He  visited  Italy  in  early  life,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Padua. 
Nor  were  the  abominations  of  Rome  unknown  to  him.  Upon  his  return  to  Ger- 
many, he  composed  a  work  against  Rome,  in  which  he  paints  in  the  strongest 
terms,  the  vices  of  that  court,  and  shows  the  necessity  of  putting  an  end  by  force, 
lo  her  tyranny.  "  There  are,"  says  a  traveller,  Vadiseus,  who  figures  in  that 
work,  "  three  things  one  usually  brings  away  with  him  from  Rome  :  a  bad  con- 
science, an  impaired  stomach,  and  an  empty  purse.  There  are  three  things  which 
Rome  does  not  believe  :  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
and  hell.  There  are  three  things  of  which  Rome  makes  traffic:  the  grace  of 
Christ,  ecclesiactical  dignities,  and  women."  History  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Six- 
teenth Century,  by  Merle  d'Aubigne.     Vol.  I.,  Chap.  XI. 

16  LfCtters  of  some  Obscure  Men. 

4* 


42         ENTRANCE  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

expose,  in  this  way,  their  own  gross  ignorance,  unbelief, 
superstition,  pride,  fanatical  zeal,  and  vulgar  and  grovelling 
spirit.  Among  other  things,  they  reveal  the  profligacy  and 
excesses  of  the  chiefs  of  their  party,  and  relate  several  scan- 
dalous anecdotes  of  Hochstraten  and  PfefFerkorn.  The  mix- 
ture of  hypocrisy  and  silliness  in  these  Letters  renders  them 
exceedingly  comic ;  and  yet  so  natural  are  they,  that  even 
the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  in  England  received  them 
as  a  genuine  and  faithful  exhibition  of  the  principles  and 
conduct  of  their  Order. 

Great  was  the  indignation,  however,  of  the  monks  in 
Germany,  when  the  work  fell  into  their  hands  ;  and  great  was 
the  delight  of  their  enemies.  The  affair  was  soon  carried  to 
the  pope.  But  Leo  refused  to  issue  a  bull  against  these 
Letters,  and  the  monks  had  to  digest  them  as  best  they 
could.  This  controversy,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  had  some 
influence  in  Italy  in  preparing  the  way  for  more  miportant 
things. 

VI.      The  Writings  of  the  Reformers  penetrate  into  Italy. 

Luther  published  his  Theses  on  the  subject  of  Indul- 
gences, in  1517;  and  within  less  than  two  years  his  writ- 
ings had  found  their  way  into  Italy,  and  were  favorably 
received  by  the  learned.  Frobenius,  a  celebrated  publisher 
at  Basle,  wrote  to  him,  to  say  that  he  had  received  certain 
treatises  of  his  from  Salmonius,  a  bookseller  at  Leipsic, 
which  he  printed,  and  of  which  he  had  sent  six  hundred 
copies  into  France  and  Spain,  Avhere,  he  was  assured  by  his 
friends,  they  were  read  and  approved.  ^^  He  furthermore 
stated  that  Calvus,  a  learned  bookseller  of  Pavia,  had  car- 
ried a  great  part  of  the  edition  into  Italy.  Individuals  in 
other  parts  of  that  country  wrote  to  their  friends  in  Ger- 

1''  He  in  fact  states  that  these  writings  were  read  and  approved  by  the  professors 
in  the  Sorbonne,  at  Paris, 


WRITINGS    OF    THE    REFORMERS    IN    ITALY.  43 

many,  stating  that  the  writings  of  Luther  were  read  with 
deep  interest,  even  in  Rome  itself. 

A  German  nobleman,  of  the  name  of  Schenk,  who  Avas 
residing  at  Venice  as  a  monk,  wrote  to  Spalatin,  the  chap- 
lain of  the  Elector  of  Saxon j,  in  the  year  1520,  that  he  had 
read  the  writings  of  Luther,  and  that  the  copies  which  had 
been  carried  to  that  city  by  the  booksellers  had  found  a 
rapid  sale,  and  were  read  with  great  avidity.  This  Schenk 
had  received  a  commission  from  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  to 
purchase  relics  in  Italy  for  his  new  imiversity  at  Wittemberg  ; 
the  commission  was  now  revoked,  and  the  rehcs  sent  back, 
the  Elector  having  learned  from  Luther  and  his  writings,  the 
vanity  of  these  things.  The  person  whom  Schenk  employed 
to  execute  this  commission  was  a  young  man  of  the  name  of 
Vergerio,  who  afterwards  became  Bishop  of  Capo  d'lstria, 
and  legate  of  the  pope  to  the  German  princes ;  but  who,  in 
the  end,  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  and  be- 
came emmently  instrumental  in  their  diffusion  in  Italy. 

Not  only  did  the  writings  of  Luther  penetrate  into  Italy — 
those  of  Melancthon,  Zuingle,  and  Bucer  were  also  carried 
thither  and  widely  circulated,  notwithstanding  all  the  bulls 
issued  from  the  Vatican  against  them.  They  were  even  read 
m  the  pope's  own  palace,  and  by  some  of  the  cardinals. 
Some  of  them  were  translated  into  Italian,  and  the  titles  so 
modified  that  their  authors  were  at  first  not  recognized. 
Tliis  was  the  case  with  Melancthon's  Common  Places  ;  which 
were  printed  at  Venice,  Avith  this  title :  Da  Messer  Ippojilo 
di  Terra  Ncgra.  ^^  Luther's  Preface  to  his  Commentary  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  his  Treatise  on  Justification, 
were  translated  and  circulated  for  awhile  as  the  works  of 
Cardinal  Fregoso.     The  works  of  Zuingle  were  circulated 

18  It  is  well  known  that  Melancthon's  original  name  was  Schwartzerd ,  which  his 
kinsman,  Reuchlin,  turned  into  Melancthon^  which  signifies  in  Greek,  as  Schivart- 
zerd  does  in  German,  and  Terra  Ncgra  in  Italian,  Uazk  earth. 


44  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

under  the  name  of  Coricius  Cogelius.  Bucer's  Commentary 
on  the  Psahns  was  sold  in  Italy  and  France  as  the  work  of 
Aretius  Felinus,  his  own  name  and  surname  translated,  the 
former  in  Greek,  and  the  latter  in  Latin. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  many  persons  in  Italy, 
especially  among  the  learned,  not  only  discovered  more 
clearly  than  ever  the  errors  of  Rome,  through  the  perusal  of 
tlie  writings  of  the  Reformers,  but  also  learned  from  them  the 
Truth  "  as  it  is  in  Jesus."  This  is  manifest  from  the  spirit 
of  the  letters  of  Egidio  di  Porta,  an  Augustinian  monk,  living 
on  Lake  Como,  addressed  to  Zuingle,  and  those  of  Baltasare 
Fontana,  a  Carmelite  monk  of  Locarno,  addressed  to  the 
Evangelical  churches  in  Switzerland,  as  well  as  many 
others. 

VII.     Study  of  the  Scriptures. 

Through  the  revival  of  letters  in  Italy,  greater  attention 
began  to  be  directed  to  sacred  literature.  This  no  doubt 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  spread  of  the  Reformed  doc- 
trmes  in  that  country.  Even  in  the  15th  century,  the  study 
of  the  Hebrew  had  made  much  progress ;  and  the  publication 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  that  language  shows  that  the  minds 
of  scholars  were  beginning  to  be  interested  in  the  perusal  of 
the  sacred  volume.  The  Psalter  in  Hebrew  was  printed  at 
Soncino,  by  a  Jewish  bookselling  house,  in  the  year  1477, 
and  the  whole  Bible  in  1488.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
scholars  that  the  world  ever  saw,  was  Giovanni  Pico,  who 
died  in  1494,  in  the  tliirty-second  year  of  his  age.  Before 
he  was  twenty-five,  he  had  mastered  twenty-two  languages. 
There  are  many  things  in  his  works  which  show  that  his 
mmd  was  imbued  with  true  piety,  and  that  he  had  a  clearer 
knowledge  of  the  gospel  than  most  men  of  his  age.  Indeed, 
many  of  his  sentiments  were  so  evangelical  that  it  is  wonder- 
ful that  he  was  not  condemned  as  a  heretic  —  a  fate  which 
lie,  in  fact,  narrowly  escaped. 


STUDY    OF    THE    SCRIPTURES.  45 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth,  we  find  a  very  laudable  zeal  manifested 
by  several  persons  in  Italy,  in  the  pursuit  of  oriental  lan- 
guages and  oriental  literature.  For  this  purpose  they  pub- 
lished quite  a  number  of  grammars,  dictionaries,  and  other 
helps  for  the  use  of  those  who  desired  to  engage  in  such 
studies.  Not  only  the  Hebrew,  but  the  Syriac,  the  Ai^abic, 
tlie  Chaldaic,  and  the  Ethiopic,  also,  enlisted  the  application 
of  scholars.  The  Scriptures,  or  portions  of  them,  in  all 
these  languages  were  pubHshed.  The  Septuagint  was  issued 
at  Venice,  by  the  Aldine^''  press,  in  1518.  Erasmus  had  his 
Greek  Testament,  accompanied  with  a  Latin  translation, 
printed  at  Basle,  in  1516.  Both  these  works  were  much 
circulated  in  Italy,  and  did  much  to  diffuse  among  the  learned 
a  knowledge  of  the  Oracles  of  God.  In  the  year  1527, 
Sante  Pagnini,  of  Lucca,  published  his  Latin  translation  of 
the  whole  Scriptures,  which  was  received  with  great  eager- 
ness by  the  well  educated,  on  account  of  the  vast  reputation 
of  the  author,  who  had  bestowed  twenty-five  years  upon  the 
work. 

Not  only  were  the  Scriptures  printed  in  the  original  lan- 
guages and  early  versions,  but  valuable  commentaries  on 
them  appeared,  the  productions  of  gifted  minds,  which  after- 
wards were  very  powerful  weapons  in  the  hands  of  those 
who  labored  to  diffuse  the  Reformed  opinions  in  Italy. 
These  commentaries,  written  by  men  of  high  standing  in  the 
Roman  CathoHc  Church,  and  sanctioned  by  its  highest 
authorities,  were  continually  appealed  to  in  supporting  those 

19  The  Aldine  press,  so  famous  for  the  excellent  editions  of  the  Latin,  Italian,  and 
Greek  classic  authors,  which  issued  from  it,  was,  as  is  well  known  to  scholars, 
established  in  Venice,  by  Aldo  Manuzio,  a  distinguished  Italian  scholar  and  printer, 
about  the  year  1490.  This  printing  establishment  was  carried  on  for  more  than  a 
centur>',  by  Aldo  Manuzio  the  elder,  his  son  Paolo,  and  his  grandson  Aldo.  Nine 
hundred  and  eight  different  editions  issued  from  it.  No  other  establishment  of  the 
kind  has  ever  been  so  celebrated. 


46         ENTRANCE  OP  THE  REFORMATION. 

doctrines  by  the  authority  of  the  Word  of  God,  rightly  inter- 
preted. 20 

It  was  by  means  of  these  studies  that  the  minds  of  the 
learned  in  Italy  were  prepared  for  taking  a  part  in  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Reformation.  It  is  owing  to  this  fact,  that  when 
the  Reformed  doctrines  spread  in  that  country,  there  were 
among  those  who  embraced  them,  so  many  literary  men,  — 
from  those  who  stood  high  in  the  ranks  of  the  hierarchy  of 
Rome,  down  to  the  humblest  order  of  monks,  who  lived  in 
secluded  cloisters. 

VIII.     Translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Italian. 

But  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  and 
kindred  languages,  though  it  might  have  been  eminently 
useful  to  the  learned,  could  never  avail  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people.  It  was  necessary  that  the  Word  of  God  should  be 
ti'anslated,  explained,  and  circulated  in  the  vulgar  tongue. 
And  it  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  translation  of  the  Sacred 
Writings  into  the  Italian  language  kept  pace  with  the  gradual 
revival  of  letters  in  that  country.  As  early  even  as  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  has  been  asserted  — 
though  it  would  seem  on  insufficient  authority  —  that  Jacopo 
da  Voragine,  Bishop  of  Genoa,  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
vernacular  language  of  Italy.  Fragments  of  such  transla- 
tions were  certainly  published  in  the  fourteenth,  century. 
And  as  early  as  the  year  1471,  a  version  of  the  Scriptures, 
by  Nicolo  Malermi,  or  Malerbi,  was  printed  at  Venice,  and 
is  said  to  have  gone  through  nine  editions  in  that  century, 
and  twelve  in  the  succeeding.  But  a  far  better  translation 
appeared  in  the  sixteenth  century,  that  of  Antonio  Brucioli. 

20  Not  only  were  the  commentaries  of  Erasmus  circulated  in  Italy,  but  those  of 
Italian  authors  were  widely  read  —  such  as  those  of  Pietro  Colonna,  Laurentius 
Valla,  Cardinal  Cajetan,  Cardinal  Sadoleti,  Angostino  Steuchi,  Folengo,  and  Isi- 
doro  Clario.  These  authors  display  a  great  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  and  all 
wrote  with  a  simplicity  which  finely  contrasts  with  the  scholastic  method. 


ENTRANCE    OF    THE    NEW    OPINIONS.  47 

His  New  Testament  was  printed  at  Venice,  for  the  first  time, 
in  1530,  and  the  whole  Bible  two  years  later.  A  more  accu- 
rate edition  appeared  in  1541.  So  great  was  the  success  of 
this  translation,  that  other  versions  rapidly  followed.  -^  This 
led  the  Roman  Catholics  to  publish  translations  of  their  own 
in  order  to  oppose  those  which  they  considered  as  favoring 
the  Protestant  doctrines.  Accordingly,  those  of  Sante  Mar- 
mochmi,  Fra  Zaccario,  Massimo  Teofilo,  and  Filippo  Rusticio 
successively  appeared.  The  last-mentioned  two  were  pub- 
lished at  a  period  considerably  subsequent  to  the  others,  and 
contain  many  excellent  remarks  in  their  prefatory  and  sub- 
joined discourses,  on  the  subject  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in 
the  vulgar  tongues. 

IX.     Circumstances  which  favored  the  Entrance  of  the  New 
Opinions  into  Italy. 

Nothing  contributed  more  to  the  introduction  of  the  Re- 
formed opinions  into  Italy,  and  their  diffusion  there,  than  the 
increased  intercourse  between  that  country  and  Germany. 
Not  only  did  the  passing  of  merchants  from  one  country  to 
the  other  facilitate  their  entrance,  but  the  great  increase  of 
travelling  had  the  same  effect.  By  these  means,  books  from 
Protestant  countries  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  continually  found  their  way  into  Italy, 
and  generally  fell  into  right  hands,  that  is,  into  the  hands  of 
those  who  desired  to  possess  them.  Furthermore,  Italian 
youth  began  to  frequent  the  German  universities,  and  some 
even  went  to  Wittemberg  and  heard  the  great  Reformer  him- 
self. These,  of  course,  were  likely  to  return  to  Italy  with 
minds  imbued  with  the  new  opinions.      Nor  should   it  be 


21  Brucioli's  translation  is  now  exceedingly  rare  and  difficult  to  be  found.  There 
is,  however,  a  copy  of  the  New  Testament,  published  in  1530,  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Berlin.  And  there  is  a  copy  of  the  whole  Bible,  published  in  1541.  in  the  library 
of  Alfred  Hennen.  Esq.,  of  New  Orleans. 


48         ENTRANCE  OF  THE  REFOKMATION. 

omitted  in  this  enumeration  of  opportunities  by  which  Truth 
found  its  way  into  Italy  from  Germany  and  Switzerland, 
that  something  was  accomplished  by  epistolary  correspond- 
ence. Many  of  those  who  embraced  the  Reformation  in 
those  countries  had  friends  south  of  the  Alps,  to  whom  they 
wrote  freely  and  fully  on  this  all-engrossing  subject. 

Nor  must  we  forget  to  say  a  word  respecting  the  influence 
of  the  wars  which  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  Charles  V., 
carried  on  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  first 
with  Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  and  afterwards  with  his 
own  former  ally,  Pope  Clement  VII.  In  the  armies  of 
Charles  V.,  there  were  many  Protestants  from  Germany ; 
whilst  in  those  of  his  rival,  Francis  I.,  were  not  a  few 
Protestant  Swiss.  These  men,  with  the  freedom  peculiar  to 
soldiers,  spoke  openly  of  the  Reformation,  and  compared  the 
simple  and  scriptural  doctrines  of  the  Reformers  with  the 
absurd  and  debasing  superstitions  of  the  Italians.  They 
contrasted  the  humility  and  poverty  of  Luther  and  the  other 
preachers  of  the  new  religion ;  the  purity  of  their  lives,  their 
beneficence,  their  charity,  their  untiring  devotion  to  the  best 
interest  of  the  people ;  with  the  sumptuous  and  luxurious 
living  of  the  cardinals  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  Romish 
Church ;  the  ignorance,  the  insolence,  the  indolence,  and  the 
vices  of  the  priests  and  monks.  These  remarks  they  did 
not  hesitate  to  make  to  the  Italians,  upon  whom  they  were 
quartered,  or  with  whom  they  came  in  contact  in  any  other 
manner. 

Nor  should  we  wonder  that  these  conversations  produced 
effect  upon  the  Italians.  They  had  too  much  proof  of  the 
truth  of  the  charges  brought  against  their  priests,  not  to  feel 
their  force.  And  in  addition,  they  had  before  their  eyes  the 
angry  manifestoes  which  the  pope  and  the  emperor  pub- 
lished against  each  other.  For,  previously  to  this  war,  and 
during  its  continuance,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  and  the 


THE    NEW    OPINIONS.  49 

"  First  Son  of  the  Church,"  hurled  bulls  and  proclamations 
at  each  other  in  no  stinted  measure,  to  the  great  scandal  of 
all  the  faithful,  and,  indeed,  to  the  grief  of  every  sincere 
Christian.  Clement  charged  the  emperor  with  indiflPerence 
to  religion,  and  complained  of  his  having  enacted  manj  laws 
in  various  portions  of  his  wide  dominions  hostile  to  the 
Church,  and  derogatory  to  the  honor  of  the  Holy  See.  And 
Charles  recriminated  by  charging  the  pope  with  being  the 
cause  of  the  wars  by  which  Europe  had  long  been  desolated, 
and  even  accused  him  of  doing  this  in  order  to  evade  the 
question  of  reforming  the  abuses  existing  in  the  Church, 
which  was  so  earnestly  pressed  upon  him  from  every  quarter. 
With  such  scandal  in  high  places  before  their  eyes,  it  is 
not  strange  that  the  attachment  of  the  Italians  to  their  reli- 
gion should,  for  a  season,  at  least,  become  weakened  ;  nor  that 
the  Protestant  German  soldiers  who  were  in  Charles's  army, 
should  speak  and  act  with  great  boldness.  Of  this  they  gave 
many  striking  proofs.  In  order  effectually  to  punish  the 
audacious  pontiff,  the  emperor  advanced  his  armies  to  the 
walls  of  Rome,  took  the  holy  city,  gave  it  up  to  his  soldiers 
to  pillage,  and  compelled  the  pope,  —  shut  up  in  the  Castle  of 
St.  Angelo,  —  to  surrender  at  discretion.  During  that  period 
of  interregnum  in  the  papacy,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  w^hilst 
Clement  was  shut  up  in  the  castle  as  a  prisoner,  the  Ger- 
man soldiers,  one  day,  took  one  of  their  number,  a  man  of 
the  name  of  Griinwald,  remarkable  for  his  noble  countenance 
and  lofty  bearing,  and  having  attired  him  like  the  pope,  they 
put  him  on  a  richly  caparisoned  horse,  and  placed  a  triple 
crown  upon  his  head.  Others  were  arrayed  hke  cardinals, 
bishops,  friars,  &c.;  and  a  procession  was  formed,  which  was 
followed  by  a  vast  concourse  of  the  people.  It  moved  through 
all  the  principal  streets  of  Rome,  the  mock-pope  stopping  in 
front  of  the  houses  where  the  cardinals  w^re  confined,  and 
blessing  the  people,  after  the  peculiar  manner  of  the  pope. 
5 


50  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  EEFOKMATION. 

Arriving  at  length  at  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  he  drank  to  the 
safe  custody  of  his  holiness.  He  then  administered  an  oath 
to  his  own  cardinals,  binding  them  to  yield  due  obedience  to  the 
emperor,  and  not  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  state  by  their 
intrigues,  but,  as  became  them,  according  to  the  precepts  of 
their  heavenly  Master,  to  be  subject  to  the  civil  powers.  Af- 
ter having  made  a  speech,  in  which  he  rehearsed  the  crimes 
of  which  the  popes  had  been  guilty,  and  extolled  the  emperor 
as  an  instrument  whom  God  had  raised  up  for  their  chastise- 
ment, the  pretended  pontiff  promised  to  make  over  all  his  au- 
thority to  Luther,  in  order  that  he  might  purify  the  Church 
of  the  corruptions  with  which  it  was  infected,  and  refit  the 
ship  of  St.  Peter,  which  had  so  long  been  the  sport  of  the 
winds  and  the  waves,  whilst  the  sacrilegious  crew  were  engaged 
in  drinking  and  debauchery.  He  then  called  upon  all  the 
soldiers  to  take  an  oath  for  the  accomplishment  of  these  good 
enterprises.  Whereupon,  all  lifted  up  their  hands,  and  shout- 
ed, "  Long  live  Pope  Luther  !  Long  live  Pope  Luther  ! " 
All  this  took  place  under  the  eye  of  Clement  VII. 

There  seemed  to  be  little  commiseration  felt  any  wdiere  for 
the  fallen  pope.  All  appeared  to  think  that  his  misfortunes 
were  the  just  judgments  of  God  for  the  sins  of  the  times, 
and  especially  for  his  own  amazing  folly  in  provoking  a  war 
to  which  he  was  wholly  unequal. 

X.     Need  of  a  Reformation  felt  hy  some  even  in  the  Vatican. 

Nor  were  there  wanting  men,  high  in  rank  in  the  Roman 
hierarchy  itself,  who  had  the  courage  to  utter  powerful  truths 
even  before  the  pope  and  cardinals.  A  remarkable  instance 
of  this  occurred  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Apostolical  Rota,  ^ 

22  The  Rota^  or  Rota  Romana,  is  the  highest  papal  court  of  appeals.  It  consists 
of  twelve  members  ;  and  holds  a  session  twice  a  week.  It  derives  its  name,  (which 
signifies  a  wheel,)  according  to  some,  from  the  fact  that  the  room  in  the  pope's  pal- 
ace in  which  this  court  meets,  has  a  floor  which  is  inlaid  with  marble  slabs  in  the 


NEED    OF    A    REFORMATION.  51 

held  after  Rome  was  delivered  from  tlie  army  of  Charles  V. 
On  that  occasion,  Staphylo,  Bishop  of  Sibari,  made  a  speech, 
in  which  he  attributed  the  devastations  which  had  taken 
place  to  the  judgments  of  heaven,  inflicted  upon  the  city  be- 
cause of  its  wickedness ;  and  applied  to  Rome  the  striking 
language  which  the  prophet  Isaiah  addresses  to  Jerusalem.  ^ 
Still  more ;  he  pronounced  Rome  to  be  the  Babylon  of  the 
Apocalypse  :  the  "  woman  sitting  on  many  waters,"  "  full  of 
names  of  blasphemy,  the  mother  of  uncleanness,  fornications, 
and  abominations  of  the  earth."  No  Protestant  has  ever 
used  stronger  terms  respecting  Rome,  than  this  prelate  did 
on  that  occasion. 

We  have  endeavored  to  state  the  causes  which  prepared 
the  way  for  the  spread  of  the  Reformed  opinions  in  Italy,  as 
well  as  the  circumstances  which  may  be  considered  as  having 
been  favorable  to  their  dissemination.  "We  shall  see,  when 
we  come  to  trace  its  progress,  which  we  now  propose  to  do, 
that  the  Reformation  had  not  only  many  isolated  friends,  but 
that  in  some  places  these  not  only  held  meetings  for  worship 
in  private  houses,  but  also  in  chapels  and  other  buildings  of 
the  nature  of  churches.  And,  for  a  few  years,  the  prospects 
of  the  Reformation  in  Italy  were  in  the  highest  degree  en- 
couraging. How  these  cheering  prospects  were  suddenly 
blasted  and  utterly  destroyed,  we  shall  show  in  its  proper 
place. 

shape  of  awheel.     According  to  some,  it  is  so  named  because,  in  ancient  Rome,  a 
round  public  building  stood  on  the  spot  where  this  tribunal  was  first  established. 
Other  supreme  courts,  as,  for    example,    that  of  Genoa,   have  borne  the  same 
name. 
23  Chapter  I.,  verse  10. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

PROGRESS    OF    THE    REFORMATION   IN    ITALY. 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  Reformed  opinions,  in 
spreading  in  Italy,  would  become  first  known  and  most 
widely  disseminated  in  the  northern  portions,  owing  to  their 
contiguity  to  Switzerland  and  Germany,  the  countries  of 
Zuingle,  Bucer,  CEcolampadius,  Luther,  and  Melancthon. 
And  such,  history  teaches  us,  was  the  fact.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, follow  a  geographical  order,  in  relating  the  progress  of 
the  Reformation  in  Italy,  beginning  at  the  north.  We  do 
this  the  more  willingly,  inasmuch  as  this  order  is  almost  as 
much  that  of  time  as  it  is  that  of  place. 

I.     Progress  of  the  Reformation  in    Venice. 

In  no  part  of  Italy  was  there  so  much  liberty  of  religious 
opinion,  as  in  Venice,  at  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation.  That 
sea-girt  city  was  the  head  of  a  powerful  commercial  republic, 
whose  ships  did  business  in  all  seas,  and  whose  trade  ex- 
tended to  almost  every  seaport  in  the  civilized  world.  The 
rich  and  proud  aristocracy,  in  whose  hands  the  government 
ever  was,  were  sufficiently  enlightened  to  possess  a  spirit  of 
toleration  far  beyond  that  which  characterized  the  age.  Ex- 
tensive intercourse  with  the  world  always  generates  more  or 
less  of  such  a  spirit. 

The  senate  of  Venice,  in  order  to  attract  foreign  merchants 
to  their  city,  had  from  the  earliest  period,  conceded  a  more 
than  ordinary  freedom  of  thought  and  speech.  Among  the 
strangers  who  visited  their  port,  were  members  of  the  several 


VENICE.  SB 

oriental  churches  which  had  separated  from  Rome,  —  the 
Greek,  the  Arminian,  the  Syrian,  the  Nestorian.  And 
though  Venice  was  thoroughly  Roman  Catholic,  she  was 
always  jealous  of  the  ambitious  and  encroaching  spirit  of 
Rome.  The  establislmient  of  the  Inquisition  within  her  ter- 
ritories had  never  been  allowed ;  nor  was  she  ready  to  permit 
the  publication  and  circulation  of  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican, 
unless  they  first  met  her  approbation.  In  fact,  the  Republic 
of  Venice,  among  Roman  Catholic  governments,  in  point  of 
liberal  policy  in  relation  to  religion,  somewhat  resembled  that 
of  Holland  among  the  Protestant  states.  She  was  distin- 
guished, too,  for  the  number  of  her  printing  presses,  and 
became  the  mart  of  a  great  book  trade.  Nor  was  this  item 
in  her  commerce  an  inconsiderable  one. 

From  these  considerations  the  reader  wiU  readily  infer 
that  Venice  was  likely  to  be  one  of  the  first  cities  in  Italy  in 
which  the  Reformed  doctrines  would  receive  a  lodgment. 
Accordingly  we  find,  as  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Swiss  and  German  Reformers,  were  early  carried 
to  that  city,  and  not  only  circulated  there,  but  spread  thence 
to  other  points  in  almost  every  part  of  Italy.  In  the  year 
1528,  Luther  speaks  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  of  the  great  joy 
which  he  had  in  hearing  that  the  Venetians  were  receiving 
the  Word  of  God.  A  learned  man  in  that  city,  of  the  name 
of  Zeigler,  was  his  warm  friend,  and  did  much  to  advance  his 
doctrines.  His  adopted  brother,  Theodore  Veit,  was  sent  by 
him  to  Wittemberg,  and  was  for  some  time  the  amanuensis 
of  Luther;  and  through  him  the  Reformer  learned  much 
from  time  to  time,  of  the  progress  of  the  Truth  in  Italy. 

Those  who  were  most  active  in  promoting  the  Reformed 

doctrines  at  Venice,  Avere  Pietro  Carnesecchi,  Baldo  Lupe- 

tino,  and  Baltassare  Altieri.     The  first  and  second  received, 

as  we  shall  see,  the  crown  of  martyrdom.     The  last  named 

5* 


54  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

-was  awliile  secretary  of  the  English  ambassador,  and  after- 
wards agent  of  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  and  had  it 
in  his  power,  owing  to  his  official  station,  to  do  much  for  the 
cause  of  truth  in  Italy.  A  relative  of  Lupetino,  Matteo 
Flacio,  went  into  Germany,  and  became  very  famous  there 
for  the  part  he  took  in  the  disputes  which  unhappily  occurred 
in  the  Lutheran  Church,  as  well  as  for  his  learned  writings.  ^"^ 
Another  friend  of  the  gospel  in  Venice,  was  Lucio  Paolo 
Rosselli,  who,  upon  a  report  being  circulated  in  Italy  that 
Melancthon  had  made  improper  concessions  to  the  Koman 
pontiff,  wrote  the  Reformer  a  noble  letter,  in  which  he  uses 
the  following  language:  '  In  this  cause  you  ought  to  regard 
neither  emperor  nor  pope,  nor  any  other  mortal,  but  the  im- 
mortal God  only.  If  there  be  any  truth  in  what  the  Papists 
circulate  about  you,  the  worst  consequences  must  accrue  to 
the  gospel,  and  to  those  who  have  been  led  to  embrace  it 
through  your  instrumentality  and  that  of  Luther.  Be  assured, 
that  all  Italy  waits  with  anxiety  for  the  result  of  your  assem- 
bly at  Augsburg.  Whatever  is  determmed  by  it  will  be  em- 
braced by  Christians  in  other  countries  through  the  authority 
of  the  emperor.  It  behooves  you  and  others,  who  are  there 
for  the  purpose  of  defending  the  gospel,  to  be  finn,  and  not 
to  suffisr  yourselves  to  be  either  frightened  from  the  standard 
of  Christ  by  threats,  or  drawn  from  it  by  entreaties  and 
promises.  I  implore  and  obtest  you,  as  the  head  and  leader 
of  the  whole  evangelical  army,  to  regard  the  salvation  of 
every  individual.  Though  you  should  be  called  to  suffer 
death  for  the  glory  of  Christ,  fear  not,  I  beseech  you ;  it  is 
better  to  die  with  honor  than  to  live  in  disgrace.     You  shall 


24  He  is  known  usually  in  ecclesiastical  history,  by  the  name  of  Matthseus  Flacius 
niyricus,  and  was  the  chief  compiler  of  the  CentmicB  Magdeburgenses,  and  of  the 
Catcdogus  Testinm  Veritatis.  He  wrote  the  Claris  Sacrce  ScripUirts,  and  an  account 
of  his  own  life,  under  the  title  of  Historia  Actionum  et  Certaminum,  which  contains 
many  interesting  anecdotes  of  his  lime. 


VENICE.  §5 

secure  a  glorious  triumph  from  Jesus  Christ,  if  you  defend 
his  righteous  cause ;  and,  in  doing  this,  you  may  depend  on 
the  aid  of  the  prayers  and  supphcations  of  many,  who,  day 
and  night,  entreat  Almighty  God  to  prosper  the  cause  of  the 
gospel,  and  to  preserve  you  and  its  other  champions,  tlirough 
the  blood  of  his  Son.  Farewell,  and  desert  not  the  cause  of 
Christ.' 25 

So  great  was  the  progress  of  the  Truth  in  Venice,  between 
the  years  1530  and  1542,  that  the  friends  of  evangelical  doc- 
trine, who  had  held  their  meetings  in  private,  began  to  delib- 
erate on  the  propriety  of  organizing  themselves  into  regular 
congregations,  and  of  assembhng  in  public.  And  as  several 
of  the  senators  were  known  to  be  favorably  disposed,  hopes 
were  entertained  that  the  government  would  give  its  sanction 
to  this  measure.  So  much  was  this  the  case,  that  Melancthon 
was  induced  to  address  a  letter  to  the  senate,  urging  them  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  Had  they  done  so, 
Venice  would  have  become  Protestant  without  doubt.  Had 
such  an  event  occurred,  how  different  might  have  been  her 
history,  as  well  as  that  of  some  other  portions  of  Italy ! 

Not  only  did  the  gospel  gain  ground  in  the  metropolis ;  it 
spread  also  in  many  cities  of  the  Venetian  territories.  In 
Padua,  many  students  and  some  of  the  professors  of  the  Uni- 
versity, then  very  celebrated  for  its  medical  school,  embraced 
the  Truth.  There  were  converts  at  Verona  and  Brescia, 
whilst  the  Bishop  of  Bergamo,  Vittore  Soranzo,  was  entirely 
friendly  to  the  evangelical  doctrine.  But  the  Reformation 
spread  most  in  Vicenza  and  Treviso,  and  their  immediate 
vicinity.  The  magistrates  of  those  cities  were  favorable  to 
the  movement,  or  at  least  winked  at  it ;  as  is  evident  from 
the  many  letters  addressed  to  them  from  the  pope  during 


25  CcBlestini  Act.  Commit.  August,  torn,  ii.,   f.  274.  —  As  quoted  in  Dr.  McCrie's 
Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy. 


56  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

more  than  ten  years.  In  1542,  when  the  heavy  hand  of  per- 
secution was  beginning  to  be  felt  by  the  followers  of  the 
gospel  in  Venice,  Vicenza,  and  Treviso,  Altieri,  m  their 
name,  addressed  a  letter  to  Luther,  begging  him  to  pray  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany  to  use  their  influence  with 
the  Republic  to  grant  a  cessation  from  violence  ;  at  least,  until 
a  general  council  was  called  for  settling  all  the  questions 
concerning  reform. 

II.     Spread  of  the  Reformation  in  Milan. 

The  then  Duchy  of  Milan  was  in  a  favorable  state  for 
receiving  the  Reformation.  The  people  were  not  ignorant  of 
the  long  resistance  which  that  diocese  had  made  to  the  arro- 
gant claims  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  during  the  first  ten  cen- 
turies. They  were  not  unacquainted  with  the  doctrines  of 
the  Waldenses,  in  Piedmont,  on  their  borders.  And,  their 
country  touching  Switzerland,  the  writings  of  Zuingle  and 
Bucer  had  not  only  gained  an  early  entrance  into  it,  but  also 
a  considerable  diffusion.  As  this  duchy  had  been  occupied 
by  the  troops  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  alternately,  the 
Protestant  soldiers  in  each  army  had  spread  extensively  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformers  among  the  people.  Owing  to 
these  various  causes,  the  new  opinions  had  gamed  much 
ground  among  the  Milanese  before  the  year  1540.  The  most 
distinguished  propagator  of  the  evangelical  faith,  was  one 
Celio  Secundo  Curio,  whose  career  was  altogether  more 
remarkable  than  that  of  any  of  those  who  embraced  the  Re- 
formation in  Italy.  He  was  born  in  Turin,  in  the  year  1503, 
and  was  the  youngest  of  twenty-three  children.  In  his  early 
youth  he  lost  his  father,  who  bequeathed  to  him  the  best  of 
legacies,  a  copy  of  the  Scriptures,  beautifully  bound.  The 
reading  of  the  sacred  volume  had  a  great  effect  upon  his 
mind.  In  his  twentieth  year  he  got  hold  of  the  writings  of 
the  Reformers,  which  established  him  in  the  faith  of  the 


MANTUA.  57 

gospel.  Determining  to  visit  Germany,  with  two  other 
young  men,  he  was  arrested  on  the  borders  of  Italy,  and  put 
in  prison.  Through  the  solicitations  of  his  friends  he  was 
released  and  placed  in  the  priory  of  St.  Benigno,  whence  he 
had  to  fly,  on  account  of  his  efforts  to  mstruct  the  monks  in 
the  evangelical  doctrine,  and  especially  for  having  abstracted 
some  relics  from  a  box  on  the  altar  of  the  chapel,  and  placed 
a  Bible  in  their  stead.  Having  returned  to  Turin,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  for  heresy,  and  his  feet  made  fast  in  the 
stocks.  By  stratagem  he  extricated  himself  from  the  fetters, 
and  escaping  from  his  imprisonment,  took  refuge  in  the 
Duchy  of  Milan,  where  he  had  sometime  before  married  into 
a  powerful  family.  For  three  years  he  gave  lectures,  with 
great  popularity,  in  the  University  of  Pavia,  and  was  every 
day  guarded,  by  a  company  of  soldiers,  from  the  attempts  of 
the  Inquisitors,  who  had  orders  from  Eome  to  arrest  him. 
At  last,  when  the  pope  threatened  the  senate  of  Pavia  with 
excommunication  if  he  was  not  delivered  up,  he  retired  to 
Venice,  whence  he  removed  to  Ferrara.  His  labors,  during 
his  stay  with  the  Milanese,  did  much  to  spread  the  Truth 
among  them. 

III.      The  Reformation  gains  ground  in  Mantua. 

The  evangelical  doctrine  early  found  friends  in  Mantua, 
which  produced  so  many  able  men  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Among  these  was  a  pious  and  liberal  Benedictine,  of 
the  name  of  Gianbattista  Folengo.  Cardinal  Gonzaga,  the 
Bishop  of  Mantua,  also  favored  the  Truth,  and  for  doing  so 
was  severely  reprehended  by  the  pope.  Paul  IH.,  as  late 
as  1545,  addressed  him  an  earnest  epistle,  exhorting  him  to 
show  more  zeal  in  extirpating  the  heresy  which  he  regretted 
to  hear  had  long  nestled  in  that  ancient  city  and  its  territory, 
and  which  had  found  advocates  among  certain  of  the  clergy, 
secular  and  reofular,  as  well  as  among  artisans  and  other 


58  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

common  people.  The  bishop  is  exhorted  to  seek  out  all  such, 
bring  them  to  trial,  and  to  inflict  torture,  if  necessary ;  and 
after  having  brought  the  trials  to  definitive  sentence,  to  trans- 
mit the  whole  in  a  proper  shape  to  Rome,  for  ultimate  judg- 
ment. The  reigning  duke,  it  ought  to  be  mentioned,  for 
protecting  his  subjects  from  this  cruel  edict,  incurred  the 
great  displeasure  of  his  Holiness. 

In  the  neighboring  city  of  Cremona,  as  well  as  the  more 
distant  Genoa,  there  were  those  who  had  received  the 
Protestant  doctrines,  and  met  in  private  houses  for  the  wor- 
ship of  God. 

IV.     The  Truth  enters  Locarno. 

This  little  city  was  the  capital  of  a  small  province  of  the 
same  name,  on  Lake  Maggiore,  which  had  been  given,  with 
three  other  provinces,  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  in  the  year 
1513,  to  the  Swiss  cantons,  for  the  military  aid  they  had 
rendered  him,  and  was  governed  by  a  prefect,  whom  the  can- 
tons sent  by  turns,  every  two  years.  At  present,  Locarno, 
with  the  bailiwicks,  or  provinces  just  referred  to,  belongs  to 
the  Canton  of  Ticino. 

As  early  as  1526,  the  Reformed  opinions  were  introduced 
into  Locarno  by  Baltassare  Fontana.  But  the  number  of 
converts  was  small  for  several  years,  as  we  learn  from  a 
letter  of  his  to  Zuingle.  Twenty  years  later,  the  Truth 
began  to  gain  ground  more  rapidly,  through  the  labors  of 
Benedetto  Locarno,  who  returned  to  his  native  place  in  the 
year  1546,  after  having  preached  the  gospel  in  various  places 
in  Italy  and  Sicily.  Nor  did  he  labor  alone.  He  was  aided 
by  Giovanni  Beccaria,  who  is  commonly  called  the  apostle  of 
Locarno,  who  had  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  errors  of 
Rome  and  of  the  truths  of  the  gospel  by  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures.  Besides  these,  there  were  four  others  who  were 
active  in  the  good  work,  —  Ludovico  Runco,  a  citizen ;  Tad- 


CAPO  d'istria.  59 

deo  de  Dunis,  a  physician ;  Martino  de  Muralto,  a  lawyer, 
and  Varnerio  Castiglione.  In  the  course  of  four  years,  the 
Protestants  of  Locarno  had  so  increased  that  they  had  a 
numerous  church,  which  was  regularly  organized,  and  had 
the  sacraments  administered  by  a  pastor  whom  they  had 
called  from  the  church  at  Chiavenna.  The  priests  of  Rome 
tried  in  vain  to  stay  the  progress  of  the  gospel  in  this  city 
and  its  vicinity. 

V.      The  Reformation  si^reads  at  Capo  d'istria. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  were  long  in  penetrating 
into  Istria,  which  is  a  peninsular  district  on  the  Adriatic  sea, 
then  under  the  government  of  the  Venetian  republic.  But 
its  progress,  when  a  commencement  had  been  made,  was 
rapid.  The  chief  instruments  in  the  good  work  were  two 
brothers,  Pierpaolo  Yergerio,  and  his  brother  Gianbattista, 
both  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the  former 
a  legate  of  popes  Clement  VII.  and  Paul  III.,  to  the  Ger- 
man princes.  It  was  in  Germany  that  his  mind  first  received 
a  bias  in  favor  of  the  Protestant  religion.  Upon  his  return 
to  Italy  he  m' as  made  a  bishop,  and  appointed  to  the  diocese  of 
Capo  d'istria,  his  native  place.  There  he  set  about  writing 
a  work  against  the  Reformation,  in  order  to  remove  the  sus- 
picions which  he  learned  were  entertained  at  Rome,  of  his 
inclination  to  the  new  opinions.  Whilst  writing  this  work 
his  mind  became  fully  convinced  of  their  truth.  His  posi- 
tion now  became  extremely  difficult.  He  consulted  his 
brother,  who  was  also  a  bishop  in  the  same  province  of  Istria. 
Nor  was  it  long  until  he  also  embraced  the  Reformed  doc- 
trine. The  two  brothers,  thenceforward,  as  long  as  they 
were  permitted  to  retain  their  dioceses,  labored  most  dih- 
gently,  yet  with  all  possible  prudence,  to  diffuse  them  among 
the  people  of  their  respective  charges.  Nor  did  they  labor 
in  vain.  Vast  numbers  became  enlightened  in  the  gospel 
throughout  all  Istria. 


60  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 


VI.     Progress  of  the  Reformation  at  Ferrara. 

In  many  respects,  the  history  of  the  spread  of  the  evan- 
gelical opinions  at  Ferrara  is  the  most  interesting  portion  of 
any  work  which  treats  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy. 

Under  the  government  of  its  dukes,  of  the  illustrious  house 
of  Este,  this  city  had  long  vied  with  Florence  in  the  encour- 
agement which  it  gave  to  learning  and  the  fine  arts.  Situ- 
ated in  a  plain,  monotonous,  and  insalubrious  country,  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Po,  its  natural  advantages  never  could 
compare  with  those  of  Florence,  or  even  Bologna.  But 
what  was  wanting  in  this  respect,  was  compensated  by  the 
superior  wisdom  and  paternal  spirit  of  several  of  the  dukes 
of  that  house,  who  took  delight  in  having  learned  men  at 
their  court.  In  the  year  1527,  Ercole,  (or  Hercules,  as  he 
is  more  commonly  called  by  English  writers,)  Duke  of  Fer- 
rara, married  the  celebrated  Renee,  or  Renata,  of  France. 
This  excellent  princess  had  become  instructed  in  the  evan- 
gelical doctrine  before  she  left  her  native  land,  and  gave 
decided  evidence  that  her  heart  was  deeply  interested  in  it. 
It  was  under  her  auspices,  that,  for  several  years,  Ferrara 
was  a  City  of  Refuge,  if  we  may  so  speak,  to  unfortunate 
scholars,  and  to  persecuted  Protestants,  not  only  of  France 
but  also  of  Italy.  John  Calvin  spent  some  time  at  the  court 
of  Ferrara,  in  his  younger  years,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
Charles  Heppeville,  and  was  the  instrument  of  confirming 
the  duchess  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  And 
almost  all  the  distinguished  Protestants  of  Italy  visited  Fer- 
rara, at  one  period  or  other,  and  passed  more  or  less  time 
there.  Among  those  whom  we  may  mention  here,  were 
Fulvio  Peregrine  Morata,  from  Mantua,  the  father  of  the 
celebrated  Olympia  Morata,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  more 
fully  hereafter,  and  Celio  Secundo  Curio,  of  Turin,  of  whom 
we  have  spoken  already. 


PROGRESS    AT    FERRARA,  61 

Most  of  tlie  distinguished  Protestants  who  spent  a  consid- 
erable length  of  time  at  Ferrara,  were  either  connected  with 
the  University,  which  was  then  in  the  zenith  of  its  fame,  or 
employed  as  tutors  in  the  family  of  the  Duke. 

It  is  not  possible  to  ascertain  the  number  of  those  in 
Ferrara  who  embraced  the  new  opinions,  or  whether  they 
worshipped  in  public,  in  churches  or  chapels,  or  held  their 
assemblies  in  private  houses.  The  latter  is  most  likely  to 
have  been  the  case.  It  would  seem  that  there  were  some- 
times several  Protestant  preachers  among  those,  who,  in  this 
city,  received  the  true  gospel,  and  professed  it  more  or  less 
openly.  Whatever  was  the  extent  to  which  the  Reformed 
opinions  gained  ground  at  Ferrara,  it  is  certain  that  it  was 
o^ying  to  the  decided  patronage  and  encouragement  of  the 
Duchess  Renee. 

This  distinguished  woman  was  the  second  daughter  of 
Louis  XII.,  who  may  be  pronounced,  on  many  accounts,  one 
of  the  best  monarchs  France  has  ever  had ;  who,  when  urged 
to,  renew  the  crusades  against  the  poor  Waldenses,  in  Dau- 
phiny,  refused  to  do  it,  saying :  "  They  are  letter  Christians 
than  we  are.''  She  was  born  at  Blois,  in  the  year  1510. 
Her  mother  was  Anne,  of  Brittany,  widow  of  Charles  YIII. 
Scarcely  had  she  reached  the  age  of  three  years  when  she 
lost  her  mother,  and  at  five  she  lost  her  father.  She  then 
had  to  depend  upon  the  care  of  her  brother-in-law,  Francis  I., 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  1515.  At  an  early  age  she  was 
affianced  to  one  prince  and  then  another,  as  policy  dictated ; 
first  to  Ferdinand  of  Austria ;  then  to  Charles  (afterwards 
Charles  V.  Emperor  of  Germany)  ;  then  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land ;  then  to  Joachim,  Marquis  of  Brandenburg ;  and  lastly 
to  Ercole  I.,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  whom,  as  we  have  stated, 
she  married  in  1527. 

History  informs  us  that  this  lady  had  few  claims  on  the 
score  of  personal  beauty.  But  she  possessed  what  was  far 
6 


62  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

more  valuable  —  a  strong  intellect,  a  sound  judgment,  and 
great  nobleness  of  soul,  united  with  much  tenderness  of  heart, 
and  a  remarkably  amiable  sj^irit.  At  an  early  age,  she  dis- 
played a  striking  fondness  for  those  studies  which  are  of  an 
ennobling  character.  She  became  quite  proficient  in  the  ex- 
act as  well  as  in  the  moral  sciences.  She  w^as  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages.  And  she  spoke 
Italian  with  the  same  purity  and  elegance  that  she  did  the 
French. 

Such  a  woman  was  Renee  of  France,  whom  God  raised 
up  to  protect,  for  a  season,  the  persecuted  Protestants  in 
Italy  ;  and  then,  when  her  enemies  had  rendered  it  impossi- 
ble for  her  to  give  further  aid  to  the  bleeding  and  prostrate 
cause  of  Truth  in  that  country,  she  was  permitted  to  return 
to  her  native  land,  and  there  offer  an  asylum  to  such  of  the 
poor  persecuted  Protestants  of  France  as  gathered  around 
the  walls  of  the  Castle  in  which  she  spent  her  declining 
years. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  this  excellent  woman  to  be  mar- 
ried to  a  man  every  Avay  unworthy  of  her.  Ercole  I.  was 
a  bigoted  Roman  Catholic ;  a  man  of  little  spirit,  —  who  not- 
withstanding the  injuries  and  indignities  which  Rome  had 
heaped  upon  his  father,  who  v/as  obliged  to  wander  for  years 
as  an  exile,  and  serve  in  foreign  armies  as  a  soldier,  in  order 
to  sustain  existence,  and  Avhen  he  recovered  his  estates  was 
compelled  to  do  it  by  asking  pardon  of  the  infamous  Alexan- 
der YL,  and  by  marrying  his  worthless  daughter,  Lucretia 
Borgia,  —  was  ever  ready  to  cringe  at  the  feet  of  the  reign- 
ing pontiff.  Indeed,  he  had  neither  the  desire  nor  the  ability 
to  extricate  his  neck  from  the  yoke  which  his  house  had  so 
long  worn.  During  the  first  years  of  his  marriage,  he 
seemed  to  have  some  affection  for  his  excellent  wife.  But 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  and  his  own  accession  to  the 
ducal  throne,  it  began  to  be  manifest  that  he  cared  little  for 


PROGRESS    IN    MODENA.  63 

her.  He  complied  with  the  first  solicitation  to  enter  into  a 
league  with  the  emperor  and  the  pope,  by  which  he  bomid 
himself  to  remove  from  his  court  all  the  French  who  were 
suspected  of  heresy.  Soon  afterwards  he  went  further,  and 
used  all  the  influence  he  had  with  his  wife,  to  persuade  her 
to  renounce  the  Protestant  religion,  and  return  to  the  bosom 
of  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church.  In  the  sequel,  it  will  be 
seen  to  what  lengths  he  went  in  this  base  and  unmanly  course. 
For  the  present,  we  must  leave  him  and  the  state  of  things 
at  Ferrara,  to  proceed  with  our  notices  of  other  places. 

YII.     Progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Modena, 

At  this  epoch,  the  Academy  of  Modena  had  attained  to 
great  repute.  And  it  appears  from  the  statements  in  Tira- 
boschi's  Biblioteca  Modenese,  that  the  Reformed  opinions 
early  found  friends  among  the  members  of  that  learned  body, 
and  that  they  entered  freely  into  disputes  with  the  priests 
and  monks  of  the  city,  for  whom  they  had  the  utmost  con- 
tempt. Anonymous  publications  containing  evangelical  doc- 
trines, began  to  be  printed  and  privately  circulated;  but 
were  soon  discovered  by  the  Inquisitors,  and  burnt.  In  the 
year  1540,  Paolo  Ricio  came  to  Modena,  and  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  cause  of  Truth,  which  continued  long  after  his 
defection  from  the  gospel.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year, 
the  celebrated  Ochino  came  to  Modena,  and  was  for  a  few 
weeks  heard  with  great  interest.  But  he  could  not  be  in- 
duced to  make  a  protracted  stay.  He  preached  in  the 
churches  of  the  city,  for  he  had  not  yet  left  the  Romish 
Church. 

And  although  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  persons  in 
jModena  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  those  who  were  favorable  to  them  were  quite  nu- 
merous about  the  year  1542. 


64  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

VIII.     spread  of  the  Evangelical  Doctrine  in  Florence. 

The  capital  of  Tuscany  became  greatly  distinguislied  after 
the  commencement  of  the  era  of  the  revival  of  letters.  Its 
university  far  excelled  all  others  in  the  number  of  its  scholars, 
and  the  encouragement  which  it  gave  to  the  fine  arts.  The 
celebrated  family  of  the  Medici  had  expended  vast  sums  in 
adorning  and  exalting  their  native  city,  and  had  finished  by 
overthrowing  its  liberties.  It  might  well  be  supposed  that 
the  luxuriousness  of  the  great,  combined  with  the  ignorance 
and  bigotry  of  the  masses,  ever  under  the  influence  of  a 
numerous  train  of  priests  and  monks,  would  interpose  insur- 
mountable barriers  to  the  progress  of  the  evangelical  doctrine 
in  Florence.  Yet  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  good 
seed  of  the  Reformation  was  widely  sown  in  that  city  as 
early  as  the  year  1525.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  were  translated  into  Italian  by  no  less  than  three  na- 
tives of  Florence  about  this  penod.  ^  This  shows  conclusively 
that  the  Word  of  God  was  in  considerable  demand  in  Tuscany. 

One  of  these  authors  was  the  excellent  Antonio  Brucioli, 
whom  we  have  referred  to  in  a  preceding  chapter  of  this 
work.  No  man  in  Italy  probably  rendered  such  important 
services  to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  as  he  did  through 
his  numerous  writings,  and  especially  his  translation  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  and  his  commentaries  upon  them.  In  the 
early  part  of  his  life,  he  was  a  distinguished  member  of  the 
Platonic  Academy  in  Florence.  And  being  ardently  attached 
to  popular  liberty,  he  embarked  in  a  conspiracy  to  expel  the 
Medici.  But  the  project  having  been  discovered,  he  was 
obliged  to  fly.  After  spending  some  time  in  Venice,  he 
travelled  in  France  and  Germany.  Applying  himself  to  the 
study  of  Hebrew,  he  became  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
of  that  language.  In  the  year  1527,  he  returned  to  Florence 
after  an  absence  of  five  years.     But  he  was  arrested  and 

20  Brucioli,  Marmocliini,  and  Teofilo. 


i:n^  the  states  of  the  chuech.  65 

thrown  into  prison,  on  a  charge  of  heresy ;  and  condemned 
to  banishment  for  two  years.  He  retired  to  Venice  again, 
and  there  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  engaged  in  literary 
labors.  For  some  years  he  was  chiefly  employed  as  a  cor- 
rector of  the  press.  At  length  he  and  his  brothers,  or  as 
some  say,  his  cousins,  Francesco  and  Alessandro  Brucioli, 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  printing-office  of  their  own. 
From  1530  to  1556,  the  probable  epoch  of  his  death,  he 
published  many  of  his  own  works,  including  translations  of 
the  classics.  Besides  his  version  of  the  Scriptures,  he  wrote 
a  commentary  on  the  whole  Bible,  extending  to  seven  vol- 
umes in  folio,  a  work  of  great  value,  and  abounding  in  evan- 
gelical views.  No  other  writer  of  his  time  did  so  much  for 
the  cause  of  Truth  in  his  native  country  as  he  did.  All  his 
publications  were  put  in  the  Index  of  Forbidden  Books.  It 
is  certain  that  his  translation  of  the  Bible  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  Italy. 

IX.     Spread  of  the  Reformation  in  the  States  of  the  Church. 

The  Reformation  found  friends  in  several  parts  of  the 
pope's  own  dominions.  In  no  city  in  all  Italy  did  the  Truth 
spread  more  rapidly  or  more  extensively  than  in  Bologna, 
which,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  as  at  present,  belonged  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  pope.  In  this  fine  city  is  the  oldest  univer- 
sity in  Italy ;  it  is  perhaps  the  oldest  in  the  world.  And  at 
the  period  of  the  Reformation,  many  of  its  members  were 
evidently  interested  in  its  doctrines.  John  Mollio,  a  native 
of  Montalcino,  a  city  in  the  territory  of  Sienna,  was  the 
principal  instrument,  under  God,  of  promoting  a  knowledge 
of  the  gospel  at  Bologna.  He  had  belonged  to  the  Order  of 
Minorites,  and  by  a  careful  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the 
perusal  of  the  works  of  the  Reformers,  had  come  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  "  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,"  which  his  talents 
enabled  him  to  commend  in  an  eloquent  manner  as  a  pro- 
6* 


66  PROGRESS    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

fessor  and  a  preacher.  After  having  acquired  great  celebrity 
in  the  universities  of  Brescia,  Milan,  and  Pavia,  he  came  to 
Bologna  about  the  year  1533.  There  the  plain  manner  in 
which  he  taught  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  in  his 
lectures  on  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  gave  offence  to  some. 
Ultimately  he  was  commanded  by  the  pope  to  desist  from 
teaching  that  doctrine ;  but,  continuing  to  do  so,  he  was 
removed  by  his  Holiness'  order,  from  his  chair  as  professor 
in  the  University. 

That  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  had  made  great 
progress  at  Bologna,  is  manifest  from  a  letter  from  some 
persons  in  that  city,  addressed  to  John  Planitz,  ambassador 
from  the  elector  of  Saxony  to  Charles  V.,  who  was  then  in 
Italy,  from  which  we  give  an  interesting  extract.  After 
having  alluded  to  the  report  that  he  had  been  sent  to  treat 
with  the  emperor  on  the  subject  of  convokmg  a  general 
council  to  reform  the  abuses  of  the  Church,  they  go  on  to 
say :  "  If  this  be  true,  as  we  trust  it  is,  then  we  offer  our 
thanks  to  you  all  —  to  you,  for  visiting  this  Babylonian  land — 
to  Germany,  for  demanding  a  council  —  and  especially  to 
your  evangelical  prince,  who  has  undertaken  the  defence  of 
the  gospel  and  of  all  the  faithful,  with  such  ardor,  that,  not 
content  with  restoring  the  grace  and  liberty  of  Christ  to  his 
native  Saxony  and  to  Germany,  he  seeks  to  extend  the  same 
blessings  to  England,  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  churches 
in  every  other  country.  We  are  quite  aware  that  it  is  a 
matter  of  small  consequence  to  you  whether  a  council  be 
assembled  or  not,  seeing  you  have  already,  as  becomes  stren- 
uous and  faithful  Christians,  thi'own  off  the  tyrannical  yoke 
of  Antichrist,  and  asserted  your  right  to  the  sacred  privileges 
of  the  free  kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ ;  so  that  you  every 
where  read,  write,  and  preach  at  your  pleasure,  Avithout  any 
other  restraint  than  the  apostolic  rule,  that  the  spirits  of  the 
prophets  be  subject  to  the  judgment  of  the  prophets  who 


IN    THE    STATES    OF    THE    CHURCH.  67 

mutually  teach  and  hear.  We  are  aware,  also,  that  it  gives 
you  no  uneasiness  to  know  that  you  are  loaded  in  foreign 
countries  with  the  heavy  charge  of  heresy ;  but  that,  on  the 
contrary,  you  esteem  it  matter  of  joy  and  eternal  gloriation 
to  be  the  first  to  suffer  reproaches,  imprisonment,  and  fire  and 
sword,  for  the  name  of  Jesus.  It  is  therefore  plain  to  us, 
that,  in  urgmg  the  convocation  of  such  a  synod,  you  do  not 
look  to  the  advantage  of  the  Germans,  but  that,  obeying  the 
apostolical  injunction,  you  seek  the  advantage  and  salvation  of 
other  nations.  On  this  account,  all  Christians  profess  them- 
selves under  the  deepest  obligations  to  you,  and  especially  we 
of  Italy,  who,  in  proportion  to  our  proximity  to  the  tyran- 
nical court,  (alas  !  we  cherish  the  tyrant  in  our  bosom,)  are 
bound  to  give  thanks  for  the  divine  blessing  of  your  liberation. 
We  beseech  and  obtest  you,  by  the  faith  of  Christ,  (though 
you  are  sufficiently  disposed  to  this  already,  and  need  not  our 
admonitions,)  to  employ  every  means  in  your  power  with  the 
religious  emperor,  and  to  leave  no  stone  unturned  to  obtain 
this  most  desirable  and  necessary  assembly,  in  which  you  can 
scarcely  fail  to  succeed ;  as  his  gentle  and  gracious  majesty 
knows  that  this  is  desired,  demanded,  expected,  and  loudly 
called  for  by  the  most  pious,  learned,  and  honorable  men  in 
the  most  illustrious  cities  of  Italy,  and  even  in  Rome  itself; 
many  of  whom,  we  have  no  doubt,  will  flock  to  you,  as  soon 
as  they  shall  learn  that  this  is  the  object  of  your  embassy. 
In  fine,  we  hope  that  this  will  be  willingly  granted,  as  a 
thing  most  reasonable  in  itself,  and  consonant  to  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Apostles  and  Holy  Fathers,  that  Christians  shall 
have  liberty  to  examine  one  another's  confessions,  since  the 
just  Uve  not  by  the  faith  of  others,  but  by  their  own,  other- 
Avise  faith  is  not  faith ;  nor  can  that  persuasion  wliicli  is  not 
divinely  produced  in  the  heart  be  properly  called  persuasion, 
but  rather  a  violent  and  forced  impulse,  which  the  simplest 
and  most  ignorant  nmst  perceive  to  be  utterly  unavailing  to 


68  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

salvation.  But  if  the  malice  of  Satan  still  rages,  to  such  a 
degree  that  this  boon  cannot  be  immediately  obtained,  liberty 
will  surely  be  granted  in  the  mean  time  both  to  clergy  and 
laity,  to  purchase  Bibles  without  incurring  the  charge  of 
heresy,  and  to  quote  the  sayings  of  Christ  or  Paul,  without 
being  branded  as  Lutherans.  For,  alas !  instances  of  this 
abominable  practice  are  common ;  and  if  this  is  not  a  mark 
of  the  reign  of  Antichrist,  we  know  not  what  it  is,  when  the 
law,  and  grace,  and  doctrine,  and  peace,  and  liberty  of  Christ, 
are  so  openly  opposed,  trampled  upon,  and  rejected."  ^^ 

The  number  of  persons  favorable  to  Protestantism  in  Bo- 
logna long  continued  to  be  great.  In  1545,  Baltassare  Altieri 
wrote  to  a  friend  in  Germany,  that  a  nobleman  in  that  city 
was  ready  to  raise  six  thousand  soldiers  in  favor  of  the  evan- 
gehcal  party,  if  it  should  be  necessary  to  make  war  against 
the  pope.  ^ 

The  Reformation  never  made  much  progress  in  Ancona, 
a  city  situated  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  and  within  the  pope's 
dominions.  Yet  there  were  some  in  that  place  who  embraced 
the  evangelical  faith.  Among  them  was  Matteo  Gentilis,  a 
physician,  and  his  two  sons.  He  was  soon  compelled  to  quit 
his  native  land,  on  account  of  the  change  in  his  religion,  and 
find  shelter  ui  a  foreign  country.  He  took  refuge  in  Camiola, 
where  he  continued  to  follow  his  profession.  His  elder  son, 
Alberic,  went  to  England,  and  was  made  a  professor  of  Laws 
at  Oxford.  His  younger  son,  Scipio,  held  the  same  post  at 
Altorf,  in  Switzerland.  He  was  distinguished,  also,  as  a 
scholar  and  a  critic. 

At  Faenza  and  Imola,  both  of  which  are  in  the  Estates 
of  the  Church,  or  that  part  of  Italy  which  acknowledges  the 
popes  as  temporal  sovereigns,  were  found  persons  who  rejoiced 

27  Seckendorf,  lib.  iii.  pp.  68,  69,  as  quoted  by  Dr.  McCrie,  in  his  History  of  the 
Reformation  in  Italy. 

28  Ibid. 


AT    LUCCA,    PISA,    AND    SIENNA.  69 

in  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  and  were  ready  to  avow 
them.  Nor  were  there  wanting  those  even  in  Rome  itself, 
who  approved  of  the  Reformed  opinions,  and  who  secretly 
held  them. 

X.     Progress  of  the  Reformed  Doctrine  at  Lucca,  Pisa,  and 
Sienna, 

Very  many  persons  at  Lucca  embraced  the  evangelical 
doctrines.  This  was  greatly  owing  to  the  labors  of  Martire, 
commonly  called  Martyr,  who  gathered  a  church  there,  to 
which  he  officiated  as  pastor.  The  climate  of  Naples  had 
not  permitted  him  to  continue  his  labors  in  that  great  city. 
Upon  his  coming  to  Lucca,  he  formed  a  college,  and  employed 
several  able  professors,  who  were  lovers  of  divine  truth, 
among  whom  were  Paolo  Lacisio,  Celso  Martinengho,  and 
Emmanuel  Tremellio.  A  great  blessing  attended  the  in- 
structions of  these  learned  and  pious  men. 

At  Pisa,  the  Truth  made  great  progress,  and,  in  the  year 
1543,  the  Protestants  formed  themselves  into  a  church,  and 
had  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  celebrated  among 
them.  The  Pisans  received  the  knowledge  of  the  evangel- 
ical Faith  from  the  Christians  of  Lucca. 

There  were  also  many  converts  to  the  gospel  at  Sienna, 
through  the  labors  of  Ochino,  who  was  a  native  of  that  city, 
and  often  visited  it  in  his  preaching  tours.  But  it  was  to 
Aonio  Paleario,  a  native  of  Campagna  di  Roma,  that  the 
Siennese  were  mainly  mdebted  for  the  knowledge  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  He  was  a  teacher  of  philos- 
ophy and  belles  lettres  in  that  city,  as  well  as  a  preacher  of 
righteousness.  He  gave  great  offence  by  his  remarks  re- 
specting the  ignorant  and  vain  priests,  whose  hypocrisy  he 
exposed  in  the  severest  terms.  But  his  work  entitled:  11 
Beneficio   di    Christo,  ^^    gave   the   greatest   offence   of  all. 

29  Benefit  of  the  Death  of  Christ. 


70  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

And  although  he  made  a  triumphant  defence  of  liimself  be- 
fore the  senate  of  Sienna,  he  was,  soon  afterwards,  compelled 
to  quit  that  city ;  and  ultimately  met  the  fate  of  a  martyr. 

XI.     Progress  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies, 

At  the  time  of  which  we  are  writing,  what  is  now  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  not  yet  formed ;  but  the 
southern  part  of  Italy  and  the  Island  of  Sicily  belonged  to 
Spain,  and  were  governed  by  viceroys  appointed  by  Charles  V. 
Even  into  these  distant  provinces  did  the  doctrines  of  the 
glorious  Reformation  penetrate.  As  to  Calabria,  or  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  the  reader  may 
remember  that  we  have  sj)oken  of  a  colony  of  Vaudois  or 
Waldenses,  from  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  as  having  existed 
two  centuries  in  that  country,  and  as  being  in  existence  still 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Reformation. 

In  the  city  of  Naples  there  were  many  who  early  imbibed 
a  love  for  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  of  which  they 
probably  first  received  some  notions  from  the  German  sol- 
diers of  Charles  V.,  who,  after  having  relieved  that  city 
from  the  siege  which  the  French  were  carrying  on,  remained 
there  a  considerable  time.  We  know  that  as  early  as  1536, 
Charles  V.,  by  a  very  rigorous  edict,  charged  Don  Pedro  de 
Toledo,  his  viceroy  at  Naples,  with  the  discovery  and  punish- 
ment of  all  who  were  infected  with  heresy,  or  who  were 
inclined  to  it. 

The  cause  of  Truth  was  afterwards  greatly  promoted  in 
Naples  by  three  excellent  men,  who  may  justly  be  styled  the 
great  reformers  of  that  city.  These  were  Juan  Valdes, 
Bernardino  Ochino,  and  Pietro  Martire  Yermigli. 

Juan  Valdes  was  a  Spaniard,  who  accompanied  Charles  V. 
into  Germany,  where,  like  many  others,  he  received  his  first 
impressions   in   favor   of  the  Reformed  doctrine.     He  was 


REFORMATION    IN    THE    TWO    SICILIES.  71 

knighted  by  Charles  V.  and  sent  from  Germany  to  Naples, 
where  he  acted  as  secretary  of  the  viceroy,  Pedro  de  Toledo. 
Possessed  of  learning,  united  with  superior  address,  piety, 
gentleness,  pohteness,  and  eloquence  in  conversation,  he  be- 
came a  great  favorite  with  the  higher  classes  of  people  in 
Naples.  He  never  became  a  preacher,  but  he  labored  to  do 
good  by  exhortation  in  the  private  meetings  of  those  who 
received  the  truth,  by  stimulating  others  who  were  preachers, 
and  by  employing  his  pen  for  the  advancement  of  the  gospel. 
His  commentaries  on  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  on  the 
Psalms,  were  considered  excellent,  though  they  contained  a 
few  things  to  wiiich  Beza  and  other  Protestant  authors  have 
objected.  His  work  on  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  his 
commentary  on  the  Psalms,  in  Spanish,  were  published  at 
Venice,  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  after  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  loiO,  to  the  sorrow  of  many  in  Naples  and 
elsewhere. 

Bernardino  Ochino,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes  called,  Ocello,  was 
bom  in  the  year  1487,  at  Sienna,  in  Tuscany.  His  parents 
were  poor  and  obscure.  He  entered,  at  an  early  age,  a  con- 
vent of  Franciscan  Observantines,  as  being  the  best  of  all 
the  orders  of  the  regular  clergy.  At  the  age  of  forty-seven, 
he  joined  the  Capuchins,  an  order  which  had  not  then  been 
long  established,  and  which  w^as  reckoned  the  most  strict  of 
all  in  its  rules.  As  he  informs  us  himself,  in  the  work  which 
he  w  rote  after  quitting  Italy,  and  in  which  he  assigns  the 
reasons  which  influenced  him  in  taking  that  step,  his  mind 
was  never  at  ease  until  he  arrived  at  a  comprehension  of 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith.  He  was  ever  and 
vainly  seeking  salvation  through  his  owai  merits.  And  find- 
ing that  he  daily  came  short  of  fulfilling  God's  holy  law, 
however  great  were  his  efforts,  and  however  multiplied  his 
penances  and  his  self-inflictions,  he  was  never  able  to  attain 
to  solid  peace  of  soul. 


72  PROGRESS    OF    THE    REFORMATION, 

Ocliino  was  a  man  of  little  learning,  but  of  extraordinary 
eloquence.  His  appearance,  too,  after  he  had  passed  the 
middle  period  of  life,  was  exceedingly  imposing.  His  hair 
became  perfectly  white ;  and  his  beard,  of  the  same  color, 
flowed  down  to  his  girdle.  His  f^ice  was  always  pale ;  and 
his  whole  aspect  was  very  venerable  and  striking.  As  he 
was  decidedly  the  first  orator  in  Italy,  in  his  day,  he  was  un- 
boundedly popular  wherever  he  w^ent.  He  preached  much  at 
Naples ;  but  he  also  visited  Venice  and  the  other  chief  cities 
throughout  all  Italy.  Although  a  monk,  he  preached  much ; 
for  it  is  customary  in  Italy  for  monks  to  preach,  rather  than 
the  parish  or  secular  clergy.  His  well  known  piety  and 
sanctity  of  life  gave  great  force  to  his  eloquence,  which  was 
of  a  fervid  and  impressive  character.  He  was  unanimously 
chosen  General  of  his  Order,  in  1538,  and  again  in  1541. 
But  his  religious  opinions  had  undergone  a  complete  change, 
even  before  he  attained  his  vast  popularity.  His  great  pru- 
dence enabled  him  for  years  to  preach  the  gospel  without 
giving  open  offence  to  its  enemies,  and  to  the  great  joy  of  its 
friends  ;  because  he  contented  himself  with  simply  preaching 
the  truth,  without  even  alluding  to  the  corresponding  errors. 
When  he  came  to  preach  at  Naples,  the  penetrating  eye  of 
Valdes  quickly  discerned  the  Protestant  under  the  garb  of 
the  Capuchin,  and,  having  gained  his  confidence,  he  introduced 
him  to  the  private  meetings  of  the  friends  of  the  evangelical 
doctrine  in  that  city.  Ochino  was  emphatically  a  preacher, 
not  an  author. 

Pietro  Martire  Vermigli,  or  Peter  Martyr,  as  he  is  more 
commonly  called  by  English  writers,  was  born  in  Florence, 
in  the  year  1500.  His  family  was  an  honorable  one,  and  he 
received  a  liberal  education.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  the 
University  of  Padua,  and  afterwards  visited  the  most  cele- 
brated academies  in  Italy.  In  opposition  to  the  will  of  his 
parents,  he  had  entered   among  the  canons  regular  of  St. 


EEFOKMATIOX   IX    THE    T^YO    SICILIES.  73 

Augustine  in  early  life.  He  studied  Greek  at  Padua,  and 
Hebrew  at  Bologna.  He  distinguished  himself,  before  the 
age  of  thirty,  as  a  preacher  at  Rome,  Bologna,  Pisa,  Venice, 
Mantua,  etc.,  for  he  was  appointed  by  the  Augustinians  to 
preach  in  their  churches  in  those  cities  during  Lent,  and  on 
other  great  occasions.  About  the  age  of  thirty  he  was  elect- 
ed Abbot  of  Spoleto,  and,  soon  after,  Head  of  the  College  of 
St.  Pietro  ad  aram,  in  the  city  of  Naples,  a  post  of  dignity 
and  emolument.  It  was  not  long  after  this  that  his  religious 
sentiments  underwent  a  complete  change.  This  was  effected 
by  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  certain  writings  of  the 
Reformers  which  fell  into  his  hands,  and  most  of  all,  perhaps, 
by  the  conversations  of  Valdes,  Flaminio,  and  others,  with 
whom  he  became  acquainted  at  Naples. 

Martire  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  extraordinary 
prudence.  Both  in  his  sermons  and  in  his  expository  lectures 
on  portions  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  he  cared  less  about 
attacking  error,  than  about  establishing  truth.  It  was  in 
this  way  that  his  labors  had  so  great  an  effect  in  under- 
mining the  corrupt  system  of  Rome  w^ithout  awaking  the 
prejudices  of  those  who  heard  him.  The  same  course  was 
pursued  also  by  his  friend  and  coadjutor,  Mollio. 

By  the  blessing  of  God  on  the  labors  of  Valdes,  Martire, 
Ochino,  Flaminio,  Mollio,  and  others,  a  Reformed  church  was 
established  in  Naples,  which  included  persons  of  the  highest 
rank  in  the  kingdom.  Among  these  we  may  mention  the 
names  of  Galeazzo  and  Caraccioli,  Gianfrancesco  de  Caserta, 
and  Bernardino  Bonifacio.  To  these  we  may  add,  Antonio 
Caraccioli,  son  of  the  prince  Melphi,  who  then  imbibed  a 
taste  for  the  evangelical  doctrines,  though  he  did  not  profess 
them  till  long  afterwards.  He  went  to  France,  and  was 
made  Abbot  of  St.  Victor,  at  Paris.  Soon  afterwards  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Troyes.  Having  at  length  become  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  the  Reformed  doctrines,  he  became 
7 


74  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

a  Protestant  minister,  and  preached  for  some  time  to  the 
Protestants  of  that  city. 

Not  only  were  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  received 
in  the  capital ;  they  spread  also  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  and  even  into  Sicily.  The  viceroys  of  that  island 
being  engaged  in  defending  their  coasts  against  the  Turks, 
had  not  leisure  to  attend  to  the  subject  of  heresy.  On  the 
contrary,  their  mild  and  tolerant  spirit  rather  encouraged 
those  who  were  persecuted  elsewhere  to  seek  refuge  with 
them.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  seeds  of  truth  were 
widely  scattered  in  that  island.  At  a  no  very  distant  day 
they  produced  a  harvest.  It  was  then  that  the  inquisitors 
found  there  enough  to  do  in  the  way  of  extirpating  heresy. 
The  most  active  in  spreading  the  truth  in  Sicily,  we  may 
remark,  was  Benedetti  Locarno,  so  called  from  the  place  of 
his  birth,  and  of  whom  we  have  already  made  mention,  when 
speaking  of  Locarno. 

We  have  now  finished  our  brief  survey  of  the  principal 
places  in  Italy,  where  the  doctrines  of  tlie  Reformers  spread 
for  a  season. 

"We  shall  conclude  this  chapter  with  some  remarks  on  a 
few  topics  that  are  intimately  connected  with  the  progress  of 
the  Reformation  in  that  country,  and  which  have  a  tendency 
to  throw  some  light  upon  it. 

1.  The  unhappy  controversies  which  arose  there,  which 
divided  the  Protestants  and  hindered  their  efforts.  These 
were  two.  The  first  was  the  dispute,  which  began  originally 
between  the  Swiss  and  German  Reformers,  on  the  subject  of 
the  Eucharist,  and  was  transferred  into  Italy  by  some  indis- 
creet and  zealous  friends  of  these  respective  parties.  It  is 
well  known  to  every  one  who  has  any  acquaintance  with  the 
history  of  the  Reformation,  that  a  difference  of  opinion  was 
early  maintained  by  Zuingle,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Luther 
on  the  other,  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  presence  of  the 


UNHAPPY    CONTROVERSIES.  75 

Saviour  in  the  Eucharist,  or  Lord's  Supper ;  the  former  hold- 
ing that  Christ  is  spiritually  present  in  that  ordinance,  and 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are  but  symbols  of  his  body  and 
blood  ;  whilst  the  latter  held  to  the  doctrine  of  consuhstantia- 
tion,  or  the  presence  of  Christ  bodily,  as  well  as  spirit- 
ually, with  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine.  This  dispute 
was  carried  on  with  great  earnestness,  and  we  are  compelled 
to  say,  with  fierceness,  and  even  bitterness,  especially  on  the 
part  of  Luther.  After  the  death  of  Zuingle,  his  opinions 
were  ably  defended  by  CEcolampadius,  Bullinger,  and  Calvin. 
Almost  aU  the  Swiss  and  French  Reformers  agreed  with 
Zuingle's  opinions  on  this  subject.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Germans  generally  received  the  doctrine  of  Luther,  and 
strenuously  maintained  it.  There  were,  however,  two  men 
who  acted  as  conciliators  and  moderators,  to  their  everlasting 
honor,  —  Bucer  on  the  one  side,  and  Melancthon  on  the  other. 
The  scandal  was  great  enough,  as  it  was :  it  would  have  been 
vastly  greater  if  it  had  not  been  for  their  mild  counsels. 

The  Italian  Protestants  were  generally  disposed  to  follow 
the  opinion  of  Zuingle ;  but  there  were  many,  especially 
about  Venice,  who  were  warm  advocates  of  that  of  Luther, 
Both  Bucer  and  Melancthon  used  their  efforts  to  produce 
union,  deeply  convinced  of  the  importance  of  Italian  Protes- 
tants being  of  one  mind,  or  at  least  not  torn  in  pieces  by 
factions.  Their  letters  were  full  of  wisdom  and  charity.  It 
is  deeply  to  be  deplored,  that  Luther,  instead  of  allaying  the 
strife,  did  all  he  could,  in  an  evil  hour,  to  foment  it.  His 
letters  to  his  friends  in  Venice,  display  the  spirit  of  a  narrow- 
minded  and  jealous  partisan,  instead  of  the  noble  Reformer, 
which,  notwithstanding  this  sad  mistake,  he  must  ever  appear 
to  every  sincere  Protestant. 

But,  as  if  this  were  not  enough,  another  controversy  arose 
to  divide  the  poor  Protestants  of  Italy,  just  as  they  were  on 


76  PROGRESS    OF    THE    REFORJIATION. 

the  point  of  being  devoured  by  tlieir  common  enemy  —  that 
relating  to  the  Trinity,  and,  by  consequence,  the  Personality 
and  proper  Divinity  of  Christ,  together  with  the  nature  of 
his  work  in  the  question  of  man's  salvation. 

Some,  in  attempting  to  account  for  the  rise  and  spread  of 
Socinian  opinions  among  the  Protestants  in  Italy,  have  main- 
tained that  there  was  always  in  that  country,  even  down  to 
the  16th  century,  a  remainder  of  the  heresy  of  Arianism, 
and  that  that  error  crept  in  among  those  who  received  the 
Reformed  doctrine,  from  this  source.  But  the  fact  is  —  nor 
ought  we  to  be  surprised  at  it  —  in  almost  every  country 
where  the  Reformation  spread,  errorists  of  one  kind  and 
another  were  soon  found  to  be  attaching  themselves  to  its 
skirts,  or  rather  to  be  concealing  themselves  beneath  them. 
It  was  just  so  in  the  original  progress  of  Christianity.  In 
this  world  of  sin,  wherever  Truth  appears.  Error  will  also 
soon  appear  by  her  side.  But  in  this  case,  it  is  wholly  prob- 
able that  the  first  seeds  of  Socinianism,  or  what  has  long 
passed  under  that  name,  were  sowed  in  Italy  by  the  well- 
known  Michael  Servetus.  The  visit  which  this  Spaniard 
made  to  Italy  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  making  the  ac- 
quaintance of  several  of  the  Reformers  of  that  country. 
Upon  tlieir  minds  he  doubtless  endeavored  to  produce  an 
impression,  both  by  his  correspondence  and  by  his  books. 
Nor  did  he  labor  without  success. 

Several  causes  concurred  to  give  circulation  to  antitrini- 
tarian  opinions  in  Italy.  In  the  first  place,  all  men,  when 
suddenly  emancipated  from  the  thraldom  of  human  authority 
and  tradition,  are  in  danger  of  transcending  the  limits  of  even 
revealed  truth,  in  their  inquiries  and  speculations.  Secondly, 
the  Italians  were  peculiarly  exposed  to  this,  both  from  the 
fact  that  they  had  been  more  thoroughly  in  bondage  to  error 
as  being  nearer  to  Rome,  and  from  the  constitution  of  their 


UNHAPPY    CONTROVERSIES.  77 

minds,  which  are  singularly  acute  and  bold,  and  had  for  a 
long  time  been  occuj^ied  with  the  Platonic  and  Skeptical  ideas 
in  philosophy.  All  the  Reformers  ^  who  corresponded  with  the 
Italian  Protestants,  remarked  the  existence  of  this  character 
of  mind  in  them.  In  the  third  place,  the  academies  that,  in 
such  great  numbers,  sprang  up  in  Italy,  about  this  period, 
and  which  did  not  differ  much  in  character  from  the  associa- 
tions and  societies  with  us  in  which  lectures  are  delivered  and 
debates  allowed,  greatly  fostered  the  spirit  of  bold  specula- 
tion and  fearless  avowal.  And  in  the  last  place,  the  Protest- 
ants in  Italy,  in  most  places,  had  no  public  assemblies,  nor 
regularly  organized  churches,  in  which  discipline  might  be 
maintained  and  error  suppressed.  As  there  was  not  one 
government  in  all  Italy  that  was  willing  to  protect  the 
Refonners,  or  to  stand  by  them  when  Rome  commenced  her 
fulminations,  it  is  evident  that  the  Truth  labored  under  every 
disadvantage.  Her  advances  were  made  only  in  secret,  as 
it  were,  and  soon  persecution  began  to  rage,  and  in  time  an- 
nihilated every  vestige  of  her  progress. 

These  antitrinitarian  speculations  and  heresies  seem  to 
have  begun  at  Sienna,  the  birthplace  of  the  Socini,  (from 
whom  the  word  Socinian  is  derived,)  and  thence  to  have  been 
transferred  to  the  Venetian  territories,  where  they  found 
greater  favor  than  in  any  other  part  of  Italy.  And  although 
there  is  reason  to  reject  the  statements  of  some  of  the  Soci- 
nian authors  in  regard  to  the  numbers  who  received  this 
heresy,  as  Dr.  McCrie  has  justly  remarked,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  there  were  some  in  various  places  who  seemed  to 
have  embraced  that  doctrine,  and  not  a  few  who  were  favor- 
ably inclined  to  it.  And  when  persecution  dispersed  the 
Protestants  of  Italy,  this  dreadful  error  was  carried  by  its 
advocates  from  that  country  to  various  parts  of  Christendom, 

30  Melancthon,  (Epist.  coll.  852,  941.)      Calvin,  ( Opera,  torn.  vii.  p.  510.) 


78  PROGEESS    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

—  particularly  to  the  Canton  of  the  Grisons  ^^  in  Switzer- 
land, to  Transylvania,  and  to  Poland. 

2.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Refor- 
mation were  embraced  by  some  of  the  first  ladies  of  Italy,  in 
point  of  mind  and  attainments.  In  no  other  country  had 
letters  been  more  zealously  or  successfully  cultivated  by 
women  of  superior  rank  since  the  revival  of  learning.  Sis- 
mondi  remarks  also,  in  his  invaluaMe  history  of  the  Italian 
Republics,  that  whatever  piety  existed  in  that  country,  at 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  to  be  found  among  the 
female  portion  of  the  population.  ^^  And  Folengo,  in  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms,  says  :  '  In  our  age  we  behold  the  ad- 
mirable spectacle  of  women  (whose  sex  is  more  addicted  to 
vanity  than  to  learning)  having  their  minds  deeply  imbued 
with  the  knowledge  of  heavenly  doctrine.  In  Campania, 
where  I  now  write,  the  most  learned  preacher  may  become 
more  learned  and  holy  by  a  smgle  conversation  with  some 
w^omen.  In  my  native  country  of  Mantua,  too,  I  found  the 
same  thing ;  and  were  it  not  that  it  would  lead  me  into  a  digres- 
sion, I  could  dilate  with  pleasure  on  the  many  proofs  which 
I  received,  to  my  no  small  edification,  of  an  unction  of  spirit 
and  fervor  of  devotion  in  the  sisterhood,  such  as  I  have  rarely 
met  with  in  the  most  learned  men  of  my  profession.'  ^ 

Among  the  illustrious  women  of  Italy  who  were  suspected 
of  heresy,  we  may  place  Isabella  Manricha,  of  Bresenga, 
who  became  converted  to  the  faith  by  Valdes,  and  who,  find- 
ing no  rest  in  her  own  land  from  the  importunities  and 
threats  of  her  friends,  retired  to  Zurich,  and  eventually  to 
the  Canton  of  the  Grisons,  where  she  spent  the  remainder  of 

31  Zanchi,  an  excellent  Italian  Protestant,  who  took  refuge  in  the  Grisons,  in 
speaking  of  Socinianism,  said :  '  Spain  produced  the  hen  ;  Italy  hatched  the  egg ; 
and  we  in  the  Grisons  now  hear  the  chicks  pip.' 

32  Histoire  des  Republiqiies,  d  ^Italie,  torn.  vii.  p.  238. 

30  Folengius  in  Fsabnos;  apnd  Gerdesii,  ltd.  Erf.  p.  261  —  quoted  in  Dr.  McCrie's 
Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  p.  157. 


ILLUSTRIOUS    PROTESTANT    LADIES.  79 

life  in  contented  poverty ;  Lavinia  della  Eovere,  daughter- 
in-law  to  the  celebrated  Camillo  Orsini,  who,  whilst  she  lived 
a  life  of  great  purity  in  Rome,  exerted  much  influence, 
through  her  father-in-law,  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  who 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Inquisition;  'than  whom,'  says 
Olympia  Morata,  '  I  know  not  a  more  learned,  or,  what  is 
still  higher  praise,  a  more  pious  woman  in  Italy.'  Madonna 
Maddelena,  and  JMadonna  Cherubina,  both  distinguished 
ladies  of  the  Orsini  family ;  Madonna  Elena  Rangone,  of 
Bentivoglio,  member  of  a  family  of  that  name  at  Modena, 
distinguished  for  the  patronage  which  it  extended  to  litera- 
ture ;  Julia  Gonzaga,  Duchess  of  Trajetto  and  Countess  of 
Fondi,  and  sister  of  the  celebrated  Luigi  II.,  Count  of  Sab- 
ionetta  —  esteemed  one  of  the  most  beautiful  women  in  Italy, 
whom  Solyman,  the  Turkish  emperor,  through  his  troops, 
attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  seize  and  carry  off,  and  who  nobly 
protected  the  preachers  of  the  evangelical  doctrine.  To 
these.  Dr.  McCrie  adds,  though  hesitatingly,  the  name  of 
Vittoria  Colonna,  widow  of  the  celebrated  General  Fernando 
Davalos,  Marquis  of  Pescara.  But  it  would  seem,  that, 
although  this  distinguished  lady  was  very  fond  of  hearing 
Ochino,  and  associated  much  with  the  other  Reformers  at 
Naples,  she  afterwards  became  so  much  under  the  influence 
of  Cardinal  Pole  and  Cardinal  Cervini,  (Pope  Marcellus  II.) 
that  she  had  no  sort  of  intercourse  with  the  Protestants  in 
her  latter  years.  Far  better  entitled  to  be  ranked  among 
them  was  Olympia  Morata,  who,  though  not  born  of  a  noble 
family,  was,  in  a  higher  sense  ennobled  by  the  splendid  tal- 
ents which  she  possessed,  by  her  attainments  in  science  and 
literature,  and,  above  all,  by  the  many  virtues  which  adorned 
her  character. 

3.  It  is  an  indisputable  fact,  that,  at  the  time  of  which  we 
write,  there  were  many  men  of  learning  and  distinction  in 
Italy,  who  sympathized  more  or  less  with  the  Reformers,  but 


80  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

who  were  restrained  by  various  considerations  from  ranging 
themselves  under  their  banners.  Some  who  agreed  with 
Luther  and  Zuingle,  as  to  the  great  doctrines  of  salvation, 
and  rejoiced  in  their  bold  avowal  of  them,  despaired  of  see- 
ing them  prevail,  because  of  the  mighty  obstacles  which  the 
Papacy  opposed  in  Italy,  its  strong-hold,  to  their  propagation. 
Others  hoped  that  the  efforts  of  the  Reformers  would  lead  to 
the  renovation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  yet  leave 
the  great  features  of  its  organization,  including  the  supremacy 
of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  untouched.  Most  of  the  Reformers 
themselves,  had,  at  the  outset,  entertained  this  hope.  Others 
there  were,  who,  whilst  they  had  little  sympathy  for  the  new 
doctrines,  and,  in  fact,  did  not  believe  them,  yet  felt  a  deep 
interest  in  their  progress  ;  hoping  that,  by  means  of  the 
schism  which  it  threatened  to  effect,  the  clergy  would  be 
forced  to  correct  the  many  abuses  which  had  become  too 
flagrant  to  be  denied  or  defended. 

By  whatever  motive  actuated,  there  is  no  doubt  that  there 
were  many  persons  in  Italy,  distinguished  for  their  talents 
and  station,  who  remained  to  the  last  in  the  bosom  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  who,  nevertheless,  held  doctrines  very 
different,  on  many  points,  from  those  which  the  Council  of 
Trent  afterwards  pronounced  to  be  those  of  that  Church,  and 
for  this  reason,  could  not  avoid  taking  an  interest  in  the 
Reformation.  The  Index  of  Forbidden  Books,  contains  the 
names  of  not  a  few  authors  who  lived  at  this  period  in  Italy, 
whose  writings  were  condemned  for  heresy,  but  who  still 
remained  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  And  yet,  the 
Index  has  itself  been  expurgated  of  many  names  that  were 
originally  in  it,  lest  the  modern  Italians  should  see  how  great 
was  the  number  of  distinguished  men  in  their  own  country 
that  sympathized  with  the  Reformation.  The  celebrated  and 
excellent  French  historian,  De  Thou,  says,  that  those  who, 
at  that  time,  were  disposed  to  exert  themselves  for  a  reforma- 


DISTINGUISHED    FRIENDS    OF    THE    REFORMATION.      81 

tion  of  the  Church,  held  frequent  consultations  respecting 
faith,  works,  grace,  free-will,  election,  &c.;  and  that  many 
of  them  holding  opinions  different  from  those  of  the  Church, 
on  these  subjects,  took  refuge  under  the  authority  of  St.  Au- 
gustine. ^^ 

In  the  list  of  such  authors  as  we  have  just  referred  to  as 
holding  doctrines  which  coincided  with  those  of  the  Reformers 
on  many  points,  we  must  place  Angelo  Manzolli,  physician  to 
Ercole,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  whose  Latin  poem,  Zodiacus 
Vitce,  was  put  in  the  Index,  and  whose  bones  were  taken  out 
of  their  grave  and  burnt ;  Marco  Antonio  Flaminio,  whose 
commentary  on  the  Psalms  abounds  with  evangelical  doc- 
trine, but  who,  seven  years  before  his  death,  wrote  a  letter 
in  Avhich  he  maintained  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and 
died  in  the  communion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church ;  An- 
gelo Buonarici,  general  of  the  canons  regular  at  Venice,  who, 
in  his  exposition  of  the  Apostohcal  Epistles,  states  the  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  as  clearly  as  any  of  the  Reform- 
ers have  done ;  Giovanni  Grimani,  a  Venetian  of  noble  birth ; 
and  Celio  Calcagnini,  '  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
age,'  according  to  Tiraboschi.  ^^  To  these  we  may  even  add 
the  names  of  several  members  of  the  Sacred  College,  who 
held  and  published  opinions  entirely  evangelical  on  the  sub- 
ject of  justification  by  faith,  —  all  of  them  before,  and  some 
of  them  after,  they  had  received  the  purple  and  the  cap,  — 
namely,  Gasparo  Contarini,  Morone,  Frederigo  Fregoso,  and 
Reginald  Pole.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  last  named  held 
the  truth  at  one  period  of  his  life,  and  seemed  to  delight  in 
the  society  of  those  who  did.  And  yet  no  member  of  the 
Sacred  College  exerted  in  the  end  so  baleful  an  influence. 
He  not  only  succeeded  by  his  winning  manners  in  retaining 


34  De  Thou,  Histoire,d  Taw,  4551. 

35  8toria,  vii.  163. 


82  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

many  distinguished  men  in  Italy,  in  the  communion  of  Rome, 
but  he  did  vast  injury  in  England,  his  native  land,  whither 
he  was  sent  to  endeavor  to  restore  the  dominion  of  popery,  — 
in  which,  alas,  he  was  but  too  successful. 

It  is  certain  that  the  Reformed  opinions  were  becoming 
widely,  if  not  very  deeply  diifused  in  Italy ;  and  if  there  had 
been  any  prince  of  considerable  importance  in  that  country 
disposed  to  do  what  the  Elector  of  Saxony  did  in  Ger- 
many—  afford  protection  to  the  Protestants  —  the  glorious 
Reformation  would  have  triumphed  south,  as  it  did  north,  of 
the  Alps.  That  there  was  danger  of  this,  the  friends  of  the 
papacy  were  aware,  and  began  early  to  be  filled  with  appre- 
hension. Sadoleti  and  Caraffa,  both  members  of  the  Sacred 
College,  informed  the  Pope,  Paul  III.,  that  there  was  *  an 
almost  universal  defection  of  men's  minds  from  the  Church, 
and  an  inclination  to  execrate  ecclesiastical  authority ; '  and 
*  that  the  whole  of  Italy  was  infected  with  the  Lutheran 
heresy,  which  had  been  extensively  embraced  both  by  states- 
men and  ecclesiastics.'  ^  Tiraboschi  says,  '  there  was  scarcely 
a  city  of  Italy  into  which  error  had  not  attempted  to  insinu- 
ate itself,  and  every  where  almost  it  had  its  partisans  and  fol- 
lowers.' ^  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  Melancthon,  who, 
in  one  of  his  letters,  says,  that  '  whole  libraries '  were  carried 
from  the  fairs  in  Germany  into  Italy,  and  the  other  Reformers 
rejoiced  for  awhile  at  the  cheering  prospect  of  the  triumph 
of  the  Truth  in  that  country.  Alas,  these  hopes  were  soon 
to  be  disappointed,  and  the  thick  clouds  of  error  and  super- 
stition, which  had  begun  to  roll  up  from  the  edges  of  the 
moral  horizon,  returned  again  to  their  former  position,  and 
grew  even  more  dense  and  portentous. 

For  awhile  Rome  was  undecided  what  course  to  pursue. 

36  RaynalcU,  Annal,  ad  an.  1539  ;  and  Spondani,  Annal^  ad  an.  1542,  —  quoted  by 
Dr.  McCrie,  in  his  Hist,  of  the  Kefor?}iation  in  Italy,  p.  177, 

37  Biblioteca  Modenese,  torn.  i.  p.  20. 


DISTINGUISHED    FRIENDS    OF    THE    REFORMATION.       83 

Reform  was  demanded  from  almost  every  quarter  of  Chris- 
tendom. At  first,  it  was  thought  that  this  voice  must  be 
listened  to;  and  Pope  Paul  III.,  in  1537,  appointed  four 
cardinals  and  five  prelates,  to  confer  on  the  subject  and  give 
him  their  advice  as  to  the  best  method  of  reforming  the 
abuses  of  the  Church.  This  commission  met  at  Bologna,  and 
after  long  deliberation,  reported  a  number  of  evils,  —  such  as 
the  intrusion  of  improper  persons  into  the  priesthood,  the  sale 
of  benefices  and  the  disposition  of  them  by  testaments,  the 
granting  of  dispensations,  and  the  union  of  bishoprics,  includ- 
ing the  incompatible  offices  of  cardinal  and  bishop,  etc.,  — 
which  called  for  speedy  remedy.  This  '  Advice,'  Paul  III. 
approved  and  published,  but  did  not  follow.  And  still  worse. 
Cardinal  Caraffa,  one  of  the  commission,  when  he  ascended 
the  papal  throne,  as  he  did,  under  the  name  of  Paul  IV.,  put 
this  document  in  the  Index  of  Forbidden  Books  !  This  Advice, 
we  may  remark,  afforded  no  little  amusement  in  Germany. 
Luther  translated  it  into  German,  and  prefixed  an  engraving, 
representing  the  pope  seated  on  a  high  throne,  surrounded  by 
his  cardinals,  who  were  all  busy  sweeping  the  room,  each 
with  a  broom  made  of  a  long  pole  with  a  fox's  tail  fastened  to 
the  end !  Among  other  things,  the  Advice  recommended  that 
the  Colloquies  of  Erasmus,  the  best  work  that  ever  came 
from  his  polished  pen,  should  be  forbidden  to  be  used  in  the 
schools,  because  of  its  dangerous  tendency.  It  was  well  for 
them  that  the  learned  author  was  in  his  grave,  or  they  would 
soon  have  felt  the  effects  of  his  caustic  wit. 

But  Rome  at  length  abandoned  her  vacillating  policy.  She 
laid  her  schemes  deep  in  diabolical  cunning.  She  resolved, 
indeed,  to  call  a  general  council ;  not  to  reform  the  Church, 
but  to  complete  the  vast  fabric  of  error,  at  which  she  had 
been  toiling  for  ages,  and  place  upon  it  the  cap-stone.  This 
she  did  by  means  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  And  at  the  same 
time  she  resolved  that  the  Reformed  doctrine  should  be  ex- 


84  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

terminated  every  where  in  Christendom,  where  she  had  the 
power  to  do  it  by  violence !  And  soon  blood  flowed  from 
one  extremity  of  Italy  to  the  other,  and  the  prayers  and  the 
groans  of  the  victims  ascended  to  heaven,  one  day  to  be  an- 
swered and  avenged,  from  many  a  city  in  that  ill-fated  land. 


CHAPTER    lY. 

SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    PtEFORMATION. 

But  at  length  the  storm  which  had  been  long  collecting 
began  to  pour  its  fury  upon  the  devoted  Protestants  of  Italy. 
It  was  in  the  year  1542  that  the  papal  court,  instigated  by 
the  clamors  wliich  were  now  made  in  all  parts  of  Italy, 
especially  by  the  various  orders  of  friars,  began  to  take  ef- 
fectual measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  Reformed  opin- 
ions. Nor  was  it  only  the  voice  of  the  inferior  priests  and 
monks  which  was  heard  calling  for  vengeance  upon  those 
who  held  and  who  propagated  such  tenets.  Cardinal  Pietro 
Caraffa,  afterAvards  known  as  Paul  IV.,  attained  an  infamous 
notoriety  in  this  bloody  affair.  In  former  years  he  had,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  held  correct  opinions  on  the  subject 
of  justification  by  faith,  and  had  a  great  reputation  for  sanc- 
tity. He  was  a  man  of  letters,  too,  and  a  patron  of  learning. 
To  him  Erasmus  dedicated  his  Jerome^  and  extolled  him  in  a 
manner  wholly  unworthy  of  his  polished  pen  —  a  service 
which  Caraffa  requited,  when  pope,  by  putting  this  very 
edition  of  Jerome  in  the  Index,  together  with  all  the  other 
writings  of  Erasmus.  The  record  in  that  work  is  as  follows : 
'  Desiderius  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  with  all  his  commentaries, 
amiotations,  scholia,  dialogues,  epistles,  critiques,  translations, 
books,  and  manuscripts ;  even  if  they  contain  nothing  at  all 
against  religion,  or  concerning  religion.'  ^^  He  laid  before 
the  Sacred  College  the  discoveries  which  he  had  made  respect- 
ing the  extent  to  which  heresy  prevailed  in  Naples  and  else- 

38  Index  Auctormn  et  Librorum  Frohibitorum ,  sig.  b.  3.  Romae,  1551). 


86  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

wliere  in  Italy,  and  exhorted  to  vigorous  measures  to  arrest 
its  further  progress. 

I.     Ocliino  and  Martyr  jiy. 

The  onset  was  made  upon  Bernardino  Ochino  and  Pietro 
Martyr,  as  the  most  prominent  of  the  Reformers  at  Naples. 
Spies  were  employed  to  report  every  thing  they  said  and 
did.  Ochino  had  many  enemies  among  the  friars  of  his 
Order,  that  of  the  Capuchins,  because  of  the  reforms  which 
he  had  introduced  into  the  monastic  establishments  of  which 
he  had  the  oversight,  as  the  superior  of  the  Order.  Having 
been  indicted  for  what  he  had  said  in  his  sermons  at  Yenice, 
during  Lent,  in  the  year  just  referred  to  (1542),  as  well  as 
for  some  things  advanced  in  his  Lectures  on  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  which  he  shortly  after  that  season  had  commenced 
reading  at  Yenice,  he  set  off  for  Rome,  in  order  to  defend 
himself.  Upon  his  arrival  at  Florence,  he  learned  that  his 
death  was  resolved  upon  by  the  papal  court.  Instead  of  ad- 
vancing further,  he  retired  hastily  to  Ferrara,  and,  aided  by 
the  Duchess  Renee,  escaped  from  Italy,  and  took  refuge 
in  Geneva.  Great  were  the  affected  lamentations  at  Rome 
over  his  defection.  In  particular,  his  friend  Caraffa  poured 
forth  his  feelings  in  a  most  bombastic  letter  which  he  ad- 
dressed to  the  Capuchin,  now  happily  escaped  from  his 
clutches :  *  What  has  befallen  thee,  Bernardino  ?  What 
evil  spirit  has  seized  thee,  like  the  reprobate  king  of  Israel 
of  old  ?  My  father,  my  father  !  The  chariot  and  the  chari- 
oteer of  Israel !  whom,  a  little  while  ago,  we  with  admiration 
beheld  ascending  to  heaven  in  the  spirit  of  Elias,  must  we 
now  bewail  thy  descent  to  hell  with  the  chariots  and  horse- 
men of  Pharaoh  ?  All  Italy  flocked  to  thee  ;  they  hung 
upon  thy  breast ;  thou  hast  betrayed  the  land ;  thou  hast 
slain  the  inhabitants.  0,  doting  old  man,  who  has  bewitched 
thee  to  feign  to  thyself  another  Christ  than  thou  wert  taught 


OCHINO    AND    MARTYR    FLY.  87 

by  the  Catholic  Church  ?  Ah !  Bernardino,  how  great  wert 
thou  in  the  eyes  of  all  men  !  O,  how  beautiful  and  fair ! 
Thy  coarse  but  sacred  cap  ^  excelled  the  cardinal's  hat  and 
the  pope's  mitre  ;  thy  nakedness  the  most  gorgeous  apparel ; 
thy  bed  of  wattles  the  softest  and  most  delicious  couch ;  thy 
deep  poverty  the  riches  of  the  world.  Thou  wert  the  herald 
of  the  Highest,  the  trumpet  sounding  far  and  wide;  thou 
wert  full  of  wisdom  and  adorned  with  knowledge ;  the  Lord 
placed  thee  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  in  his  holy  mount,  as  a 
light  above  the  candlestick,  as  the  sun  of  the  people,  as  a 
pillar  in  his  temple,  as  a  watchman  in  his  vineyard,  as  a  shep- 
herd to  feed  his  flock.  Still  thy  eloquent  discourses  sound  in 
our  ears ;  still  we  see  thy  unshodden  feet.  Where  now  are 
all  thy  magnificent  words  concerning  contempt  of  the  world  ? 
Where  thy  invectives  against  covetousness  ?  Thou,  that  didst 
teach  that  a  man  should  not  steal,  dost  thou  steal  ? '  ^ 

From  Geneva,  Ochino  replied  to  the  letters  addressed  to 
him,  as  well  as  to  the  attacks  made  upon  his  opinions  and  his 
character.  And  as  his  writings  were  all  in  the  Italian  lan- 
guage, and  of  a  popular  style,  they  had  no  little  circulation 
in  Italy.  His  flight  was  the  signal  for  the  arrest  of  many  of 
his  friends,  and  a  rigid  investigation  of  the  sentiments  of  his 
Order.  Some  recanted,  and  some  made  their  escape.  So 
great  was  the  number  of  Capucliins  who  were  infected  with 
heresy,  that  the  pope  proposed  at  one  time  to  suppress  the 
whole  Order. 

In  the  mean  while,  Martyr,  finding  himself  in  danger  at 
Lucca,  took  measures  also,  to  escape  to  Zwitzerland.  He 
had  long  been  hated  by  many  of  the  Augustinians,  because 

39  The  cap  or  hood  of  the  Capuchin  monks  is  made  of  coarse  cloth  ;  their  dress  is 
of  the  same  material,  and  they  wear  nothing  on  their  feet,  or,  at  most,  only  a 
sandal,  which  covers  little  more  than  the  sole  of  the,  foot. 

40  Bock,  Hist.  Antitrin.  torn.  ii.  p.  485.  Quirini  Diatr.  ad  vol  iii.  Epistola.  Poll, 
p.  86,  quoted  by  McCrie,  in  his  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  18.3,  1S4. 


08  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

of  the  reformation  of  manners  which  he,  as  visitor-gen- 
eral of  the  Order,  endeavored  to  enforce.  Giving  up  a  part 
of  his  library  to  the  convent  over  which  he  had  presided,  and 
committing  the  rest  to  Cristoforo  Trenta,  a  nobleman  of 
Lucca,  his  intimate  friend,  to  be  sent  after  him,  he  retired 
with  Paolo  Lacisio,  Teodosio  Trebellio,  and  Julio  Terentiano, 
to  Pisa,  whence  he  sent  back  the  ring  which  he  had  worn  as 
the  badge  of  his  office.  Thence  he  went  by  way  of  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  Verona,  to  Zurich,  accompanied  by  his  three 
friends.  From  Zurich  they  were  immediately  invited  to 
Strasburg  by  Bucer,  where  they  obtained  situations  as  pro- 
fessors in  the  academy.  From  that  city,  Martyr  wrote  to 
the  Reformed  Church  at  Lucca,  giving  his  reasons  for  aban- 
doning that  city,  and  exhorting  the  brethren  to  steadfastness. 
His  letters  to  them  continued,  for  years,  to  be  frequent.  Nor 
were  they  in  vain.  The  Church  continued  to  exist,  and  even 
increased  in  numbers,  under  the  protection  of  some  powerful 
citizens.  But  many  of  the  monks  of  the  convent  over  which 
Martyr  was  superior  were  arrested,  and,  within  less  than  a 
year,  eighteen  of  them  escaped  to  Switzerland. 

II.      Celio  Secundo   Curio  escapes. 

After  the  flight  of  Martyr,  Curio  remained  at  Lucca  more 
than  a  year,  officiating  as  a  religious  teacher  among  the  Prot- 
estants, and  holding  his  post  as  a  professor  in  the  University. 
But  the  pope  having  written  to  the  magistrates  of  that  city, 
demanding  his  arrest  and  his  appearance  at  Rome,  to  answer 
the  charges  brought  against  him,  they,  finding  they  could  no 
longer  protect  him,  gave  him  notice,  privately,  to  make  his 
escape.  Upon  this,  he  retired  to  Ferrara,  whence  he  went 
to  Zurich  and  Berne,  commended  to  the  magistrates  by  letters 
from  the  Duchess  Renee,  and  finally  took  up  his  abode  at 
Lausanne.  In  the  course  of  a  few  months  he  ventured  to 
return  into  Italy  for  his  wife  and  children  whom  he  had  left 


THE    INQUISITION    IN   ITALY.  89 

at  Lucca.  His  enemies  soon  discovered  his  track,  and  pur- 
sued him  to  the  village  of  Pessa,  near  to  Lucca,  where  he 
was  waiting  for  his  family.  One  day  whilst  he  was  seated 
at  dinner,  a  captain  of  a  papal  band  walked  in  and  called 
upon  him  to  surrender  himself  as  a  prisoner.  Curio,  who 
was  engaged  in  carving  a  piece  of  meat,  advanced  to  do  as 
he  was  ordered,  involuntarily  holding  the  large  knife,  which 
he  had  been  using,  in  his  hand.  The  poor  captain  seeing 
him  to  be  a  large  and  strong  man,  and  thinking  that  he  was 
about  to  attack  him  with  the  knife,  retired  to  a  corner  of  the 
room  and  stood  trembling  like  a  convict.  In  the  mean  wliile 
Curio,  with  great  presence  of  mind  walked  out  of  the  door, 
and  passing  unharmed  through  the  armed  band  who  were 
awaiting  their  leader,  went  instantly  to  his  stable,  took  a 
horse  and  escaped. 

in.     Meorganization  of  the  Inquisition  in  Italy. 

The  effective  cause  of  the  suppression  and  ultimate  de- 
struction of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  estabhshment,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  the 
reorganization,  of  the  Inquisition  in  that  country. 

The  Inquisition,  as  is  well  known,  was  instituted  in  the 
twelfth  century.  From  the  first,  it  was  estabhshed  in  Italy  ; 
but,  so  great  was  the  opposition  to  it,  especially  in  the  free 
cities  and  states,  that  effectual  measures  were  adopted  in  the 
fourteenth  century  to  restrain  its  exorbitant  power  in  all  parts 
of  that  country.  The  cognizance  of  that  tribunal  was  re- 
stricted to  questions  of  heresy,  and  the  power  of  imprison- 
ment, confiscation,  fine,  and  corporal  punishment  was  declared 
to  appertain  solely  to  the  secular  ann.  The  bishops,  too, 
were  authorized  to  take  part  in  the  examination  of  the  accused. 
Thus  the  Inquisition  in  Italy  became  a  very  different  affair 
from  what  it  ever  was  in  Spain.  The  popes  found  that  it 
was  utterly  impotent  to  extirpate  heresy,  and  therefore  set 
8* 


90  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

about  its  reorganization  essentially  after  tlie  Spanish  model. 
For  this  purpose  Paul  III.  issued  a  bull,  bearing  the  date  of 
April  1st,  1543,  by  which  he  founded  at  Eome  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Holy  Office.  By  this  edict  six  cardinals  were  con- 
stituted inquisitors-general,  with  all  the  necessary  authority, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Alps,  to  try  all  causes  of  heresy,  with 
the  power  of  arresting  and  imprisoning  suspected  persons 
and  their  abettors,  of  whatever  estate,  rank,  or  order,  of  nom- 
inating officers  under  them,  and  of  appointing  inferior  affili- 
ated tribunals,  of  equal  or  inferior  power,  in  all  places. 

It  is  true  that  this  tribunal  commenced  its  operations  only 
in  the  ecclesiastical  states.  But  although  its  introduction 
into  other  parts  of  Italy  was  more  or  less  opposed,  yet  it  was 
soon  organized  every  where.  In  Venice,  the  government 
insisted  upon  the  condition  that  a  certain  number  of  magis- 
trates and  lawyers  should  be  present  at  the  examination  of 
accused  persons,  and  that  a  definitive  sentence  should  not  be 
pronounced,  at  least,  in  the  case  of  the  laity,  without  having 
been  first  submitted  to  the  senate.  In  Tuscany,  too,  there 
was  some  limitation  to  its  power ;  though  of  but  little  conse- 
quence. Every  where  else  its  operation  was  unlimited ;  and 
such  was  its  efficiency  that  in  a  period  of  twenty  years  it 
almost  worked  the  extirpation  of  the  Reformed  doctrine  in 
all  Italy.  It  is  true,  also,  that  Francesco  Burlamacchi  and 
others,  of  Lucca,  set  on  foot  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow  the 
tyrannies  which  existed  in  Italy,  and,  by  the  cooperation 
of  the  friends  of  the  new  opinions  and  of  liberty,  to  reestab- 
lish republican  governments.     But  the  attempt  wholly  failed. 

As  soon  as  the  Inquisition,  thus  remodelled,  was  erected 
throughout  Italy,  those  who  had  avowed  sentiments  favorable 
to  the  Reformed  opinions,  and  by  so  doing  had  exposed  them- 
selves to  its  vengeance,  tied  in  great  numbers.  The  prisons 
of  the  Inquisition  were  filled  with  the  suspected  persons  who 
remained.      The  open   profession   of  the    Protestant   Faith 


PERSECUTION   IN    MODENA.  91 

ceased,  except  in  a  few  places.  Many  persons  suffered 
death;  others  remained  a  long  time  in  prison.  Still  the 
friends  of  the  Reformation  were  numerous,  and  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  they  held  their  meetings  in  private  houses, 
and  continued  to  encourage  and  edify  one  another,  notwith- 
standing all  the  activity  of  the  Inquisitors. 

IV.     Persecution  in  Modena. 

Modena,  at  the  time  of  which  we  write,  was  within  the 
dominions  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  there  was  a  strong  leaven  of  Reformed  doctrine 
in  the  academy  of  that  city,  which  Pope  Paul  III.  and  his 
successors,  Pius  III.,  Marcellus  II.,  and  especially  Paul  IV., 
labored,  for  years,  to  extirpate.  As  Ercole,  Duke  of  Fer- 
rara, was  a  bigoted  Catnolic,  and  willing  to  be  the  merest 
tool  of  the  pope,  the  academicians  and  others  in  Modena 
who  had  received  the  new  opinions,  were  exposed  to  great 
hazards.  In  1542,  it  was  proposed  in  the  Vatican  to  cite 
some  of  the  most  influential  persons  among  them  to  Rome ; 
but  this  was  opposed  by  Cardinal  Sadoleti,  who  wi'ote  very 
kind  letters  to  Castelvetro  and  others  at  Modena,  who  had 
adopted  the  Protestant  doctrines.  Cardinal  Morone,  also, 
employed  his  best  offices  to  prevent  the  difficulty  which  was 
about  to  rise.  At  length,  cardinals  Sadoleti  and  Cortese 
went  to  Modena  to  meet  the  bishop  of  that  city,  and  try  to 
effect  a  reconciliation.  Through  their  exertions,  a  formulary 
of  doctrines,  drawn  up  with  singular  moderation,  by  Contarini, 
at  Morone's  request,  was  reluctantly  subscribed  by  the  sus- 
pected academicians.  But  this  arrangement  produced  little 
good. 

In  the  year  1543,  two  monks,  Bartolomeo  della  Pergala 
and  Pontremolo,  were  arrested  and  condemned  at  Modena, 
for  preaching  heretical  doctrines ;  and,  in  1545,  the  persecu- 
tion  against  the   academicians  was  renewed.     An  attempt 


92  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

was  made  to  seize  Filippo  Valentino,  a  young  man  of  great 
genius ;  ^  but  he  escaped.  Soon  after  the  academy  was  dis- 
solved by  the  voluntary  dispersion  of  its  members,  who  fled 
to  avoid  the  persecution  which  had  been  set  on  foot,  and  to 
the  promotion  of  which  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  had  so  readily 
lent  his  aid.  The  next  year  Castelvetro,  Filippo  Valentino, 
Bonifacio  Valentino,  and  Gadaldmo,  a  bookseller,  were  cited 
to  appear  before  the  Inquisition  at  Rome.  The  first  two 
refused  to  go,  and  were  excommunicated.  The  last  two  were 
detained  in  prison  more  than  a  year.  Castelvetro  lived  a 
while  in  Ferrara,  in  retirement.  But  in  1559,  he  was  in- 
duced by  the  new  duke,  Alfonso  II.,  who  had  just  mounted 
the  throne,  to  go  to  Rome  and  stand  his  trial.  He  went,  and 
after  remaining  there  several  months,  and  undergoing  several 
interrogations,  he  escaped  with  his  brother  Giammaria.  On 
the  26th  of  November,  1560,  they  were  publicly  excommu- 
nicated, as  fugitives  and  incorrigible  heretics.  ^ 

V.     The  Reformed  Doctrine  extirpated  at  Ferrara. 

Nor  was  the  storm  slow  in  reaching  Ferrara.  In  1545, 
the  pope  exhorted  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  that  city  to 
great  diligence  in  investigating  the  sentiments  of  those  who 
were  suspected  of  heresy,  and,  having  brought  their  inquiries 
to  a  definite  judgment,  to  transmit  the  same  to  Rome.  Spies 
were,  about  this  time,  sent  forth  into  all  parts  of  Italy,  who 
insinuated  themselves  into  the  acquaintance  and  company  of 
all  classes,  and  transferred  to  the  Vatican  the  information 


41  The  attainments  of  Filippo  Valentino  were  indeed  prodigious,  if  the  account  of 
him  given  by  Castelvetro  be  true  — namely,  that  at  the  age  of  seven  he  wrote  letters 
worthy,  as  to  style,  of  Cicero  himself.  It  is  said,  also,  that  he  could  repeat  dis- 
courses, verbatim,  which  he  had  heard  but  once,  and  had  the  principal  Latin  and 
Italian  poets  by  heart. 

42  One  of  the  greatest  charges  brought  against  Castelvetro,  was  that  of  his  having 
translated  into  Italian  the  celebrated  work  of  Melancthon,  on  the  Authority  of  the 
Church  and  Fathers. 


I 


EXTIRPATED    AT    FEERARA.  93 

which  they  collected.  By  this  means  many  excellent  persons 
were  entrapped  in  Ferrara.  Upon  the  death  of  Paul  III., 
Cardinal  De  Monte  ascended  the  papal  throne,  under  the 
name  of  Julius  III.  He  was  a  man  of  a  persecuting  as  well 
as  voluptuous  spirit.  In  1550,  the  Reformed  church,  which 
had  existed  for  a  number  of  years  at  Ferrara,  was  dispersed ; 
many  of  its  members  were  thrown  into  prison,  and  one  of 
their  preachers,  a  man  of  great  piety,  was  put  to  death. 

The  Duchess  Renee  did  aU  she  could  to  shield  the  little 
flock  of  the  faithful  against  these  cruel  proceedings.  But  her 
influence  at  Ferrara  w^as  fast  departing.  Her  husband,  who 
was  incapable  of  appreciating  either  her  noble  character,  or 
the  elevated  motives  from  which  she  acted,  in  adhering  to 
the  Protestant  faith,  did  all  that  he  could  to  induce  her  to 
return  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  —  instigated  and  urged 
on  by  the  pope.  Failing  to  accomplish  this  by  persuasion, 
he  resorted  to  harsh  measures.  He  had  long  ceased  to  mani- 
fest any  regard  for  her  person,  and  had  given  himself  up  to  a 
life  of  criminal  and  most  shameful  neglect  of  his  duties  as  a 
husband. 

The  influence  of  her  family  was  brought  to  bear  upon  her, 
to  turn  her  away  from  the  Truth.  Her  nephew,  Henry  II., 
King  of  France,  sent  the  Inquisitor  Oritz,  who  had  been  with 
him  some  time  as  his  confessor,  to  Ferrara,  with  instructions 
to  labor  for  the  recovery  of  his  '  only  aunt '  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and,  if  arguments  failed,  to  cause  all  neces- 
sary severity  to  be  employed  to  effect  the  object.  But  all 
his  efforts  were  to  no  purpose.  The  daughter  of  Louis  XII. 
was  neither  to  be  persuaded  nor  frightened  into  an  abandon- 
ment of  what  she  conscientiously  believed  to  be  the  true 
gospel.  One  indignity  after  another  was  heaped  upon  her 
by  her  husband.  Those  of  her  attendants  who  were  sus- 
pected of  participating  in  the  new  opinions  w^ere  sent  away. 


M  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE   REFORMATION. 

Even  lier  children  ^  were  at  length  forbidden  to  approach 
her.  Her  ultimate  friend,  the  instructress  and  companion  of 
her  daughter  Anne,  the  devoted  Oljmpia  Morata,  had,  some 
time  previous  to  this,  been  compelled  to  leave  the  palace, 
upon  the  death  of  her  father,  to  take  care  of  her  mother  and 
the  younger  branches  of  her  family,  and  had  become  exposed 
to  much  harsh  treatment  from  the  court.  From  this  she  was 
relieved  by  her  marriage  with  Dr.  Gunthler,  a  German 
medical  student,  who  took  her  into  Germany  upon  his  return 
to  that  country. 

But  neither  the  bad  treatment  of  her  husband,  nor  the 
sophistry  and  persuasion  of  the  Inquisitor  Oritz,  ^  availed  to 
cause  the  Duchess  to  return  to  the  fold  of  Rome ;  though  it 
would  seem  that,  for  the  sake  of  her  childi'en,  she  at  last 
made  some  unimportant  concessions. 

In  the  year  1558  died  Ercole,  Duke  of  Ferrara.  His 
character  has  been  sufficiently  exhibited  in  the  few  sentences 
in  which  we  have  spoken  of  him.  Notwithstanding  his  im- 
moralities, he  was  honored  by  Paul  IV.  with  the  title  of 
Defender  of  the  Church.  His  zeal  for  Rome  was  still  fur- 
ther rewarded  by  the  dethronement  of  his  grandson,  and  the 
annexation  of  the  dukedom  of  Ferrara  to  the  Estates  of  the 
Church,  to  which  it  remains  united  to  this  day. 

43  She  had  five  children ;  two  sons,  Alfonso,  who  became  Duke  of  Ferrara,  — 
celebrated  as  the  patron  and  afterwards  the  enemy  of  Torquato  Tasso,  —  Louis, 
Cardinal  d'Este,  and  three  daughters  ;  Anne,  who  married  first  Francis  of  Lorraine, 
called  the  Duke  of  Guise,  and  afterwards  the  Duke  of  Savoy;  Lucretia,  Duchess 
of  Urbino,  and  the  Princess  Elenora,  who  died  unmarried.  It  was  for  her  that  poor 
Tasso  entertained  so  strong  a  passion,  and  which  has  been  considered  the  cause  of 
the  misfortunes  which  overshadowed  and  imbittered  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 

44  This  Oritz  seems  to  have  grown  more  firm  and  skilful  as  he  grew  older. 
Beza,  in  his  History  of  the  Ref.  Churches  of  France  (tom.  1.  p.  20.),  speaks  of  him  as 
having  been  sent  to  Sancerre  in  search  of  heretics,  in  the  year  1534  ;  but  the  inhab- 
itants, knowing  his  fondness  for  good  cheer,  treated  him  with  so  much  hospitality, 
that  he  reported  them  to  be  most  excellent  people!  Dr.  M'Crie  rightly  observes, 
that  Monsieur  Oritz  was  then  young  and  had  not  yet  tasted  blood. 


EXTIRPATED    AT    FERRARA.  95 

Upon  the  death  of  her  husband  Ercole,  the  Duchess  Renee 
left  Ferrara  and  returned  to  France,  where  her  nephew, 
Henry  II.,  was  still  on  the  throne,  and  took  up  her  abode  at 
the  Castle  of  Montargis,  a  small  and  ancient  city,  some  forty 
miles  southeast  of  Paris.  There  she  spent  the  remainder  of 
her  life.  There  she  made  an  open  profession  of  the  Protest- 
ant religion ;  and  during  the  sixteen  years  which  she  lived 
after  her  return  from  Italy,  she  devoted  all  her  energies  and 
her  resources  to  the  succor  of  the  poor  persecuted  Protest- 
ants of  her  native  land.  In  doing  this  she  had,  of  course,  to 
encounter  all  the  hatred  of  the  fanatical  priest-party  of  the 
kingdom,  headed  by  the  Guises,  one  of  whom,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  was  the  husband  of  her  daughter  Anne.  In 
the  year  1560,  Francis  II.,  a  mere  youth,  without  experi- 
ence, and  wholly  under  the  domination  of  a  faction  of  bigots, 
who  had  succeeded  his  father,  Henry  H.,  commenced  the 
persecution  of  the  Protestants  on  an  extensive  scale.  The 
houses  of  those  whose  names  were  on  the  Hsts  of  the  pro- 
scribed were  pillaged  and  torn  down,  and  many  persons  were 
put  to  death.  The  Prince  of  Conde,  a  distinguished  Protest- 
ant, was  cast  into  prison  at  Orleans,  and  his  sister-in-law,  the 
Countess  of  Roye,  was  thrown  into  that  of  St.  Germain-en- 
Laye.  Renee  hastened  to  Orleans  to  save  Conde.  Meeting 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  her  son-in-law,  she  upbraided  him  with 
his  perfidy,  and  boldly  said,  that,  '  if  she  had  been  there  she 
would  have  prevented  what  had  been  done ;  whoever  gave 
the  king  such  advice  has  deceived  him;  this  wound  will 
bleed  a  long  time  hereafter,  and  so  much  the  more  as  no  one 
has  ever  become  fond  of  shedding  the  blood  of  France,  with- 
out finding  evil  in  so  doing.' 

Not  long  afterwards,  the  Duke  of  Guise  sent  an  armed 
force,  under  the  conduct  of  Jean  de  Souches-Malicorne  to 
Montargis,  to  cause  the  Duchess  Renee  to  deliver  up  the  un- 
fortunate  Protestants  who  had  taken  refuge  in  that  place. 


96  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

In  the  onset,  a  number  of  these  people  were  killed,  their 
houses  were  burned,  and  then  razed  to  the  ground.  The 
Duchess  retired  to  the  Castle,  into  which  all  fled  that  could. 
De  Souches  threatened  to  advance  his  cannon,  and  batter  the 
fortress  to  the  ground.  But  he  received  this  bold  answer 
from  the  courageous  Renee :  '  Consider  well  what  you  do ; 
know  that  no  one  has  the  right  to  command  me  but  the  king 
himself;  and  that,  if  you  come  hither,  I  will  be  the  first  to 
mount  the  breach,  where  I  shall  see  if  you  have  the  audacity 
to  kill  the  daughter  of  a  king,  who  desires  only  to  protect  her 
subjects,  and  whose  death  heaven  and  earth  will  be  bound  to 
avenge  upon  you  and  all  your  line,  even  to  your  children  who 
are  in  their  cradles.'  This  noble  answer,  when  reported  to 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  had  the  effect  to  arrest  his  threats.  A 
short  time  after,  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  a  fanatical  Protest- 
ant of  the  name  of  Poltrot.  This  event  plunged  the  Duch- 
ess into  the  deepest  grief.  She  deplored  the  civil  war  which 
had  been  kindled  by  the  determination  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, headed  by  the  government,  to  destroy  by  force  the  new 
sect,  whose  only  crime  was,  that  they  held  to  a  religion 
founded  on  the  gospel,  which  inculcated  the  practice  of  good 
works  instead  of  vain  superstitions,  and  taught  men  to  rely 
for  salvation  upon  the  merits  and  intercession  of^a  glorious 
and  only  Saviour.  This  religion  she  desired  to  see  propa- 
gated by  reason  and  persuasion,  and  not  by  force.  But,  alas, 
those  were  not  the  times  in  which  the  voice  of  humanity  was 
likely  to  be  heard.  And  all  that  this  excellent  woman  could 
do  was  to  exert  herself  in  favor  of  the  Protestants  and  their 
pastors  as  far  as  her  influence  could  shield  them.  She  main- 
tained a  constant  correspondence  with  the  chief  men  among 
them,  until  her  death,  which  occurred  at  Montargis  on  the 
12th  of  June,  1575.  To  the  last  she  was  a  consistent  and 
devoted  Protestant ;  and  ever  gave  proof,  in  her  abhorrence 
of  Rome,  that  she  was  a  worthy  daughter  of  him  who  caused 


PEESECUTIOX   FvAGES    IN   VENICE.  97 

to  be  inscribed  on  the  medal  which  was  struck  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Council  of  Lyons  —  the  Council  which  proclaimed  the 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church  —  Destruam  Babylonem.  ^ 

The  memory  of  this  excellent  princess  is  revered  by  the 
Protestants  of  France,  to  this  day,  and  with  good  reason ;  for 
she  was  an  ornament  to  the  religion  which  they  profess.*^ 
Her  daughter  Anne,  who  had  enjoyed  in  her  youth  the  ex- 
cellent instructions  and  the  admirable  example  of  Olympia 
Morata,  was  the  only  one  of  her  children  that  resembled  her, 
either  in  vigor  of  intellect  or  goodness  of  heart.  And, 
although  she  never  openly  professed  the  Protestant  Faith,  it 
is  certain  that  she  was  well  disposed  in  relation  to  it,  and 
exerted  all  her  influence  to  moderate  the  violence  of  her  two 
bigoted  husbands,  against  its  friends.  Condorcet,  De  Thou, 
Riccio,  Paleario,  Calcagni,  and  other  French  and  Italian 
authors  have  spoken  in  the  highest  terms  of  this  amiable 
princess.  ^'' 

VI.     Persecution  rages  in  Venice  and  its   Territories. 

For  awhile  the  senate  of  Venice  was  evidently  unwilling 
to  lend  its  influence  and  aid  in  the  work  of  extirpating  her- 
esy. But  at  length  the  importunity  of  Rome  prevailed. 
The  commencement  of  this  cruel  work  was  made  at  Vicenza, 
and  the  Reformed  church,  which  had  existed  there  for  sev- 
eral years,  was,  in  the  year  1547,  dispersed.  The  year  fol- 
lowing, the  senate  ordered  all  who  possessed  books  which 
contained  any  thing  contrary  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Faith 
to  deliver  them  up  within  eight  days,  or  be  proceeded  against, 
upon  information  given,  as  heretics.     This  was  followed  by 

45  I  will  destroy  Babylon  —  meaning  Rome. 

46  For  an  interesting  memoir  of  the  Duchess  Renee,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  Musee  des  Protestans  Celebres,  tom.  ii.  pp.  172 — 198. 

4"  In  the  published  works  of  Olympia  Morata,  there  is  a  beautiful  letter  address- 
ed to  'Annae  Estensi,  Principi  Guisianae,'  pp.  130—133. 

9 


98  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE    KEFOPwMATION. 

great  severities  against  the  Protestants,  not  only  in  Venice, 
but  in  all  its  territories.  Many  were  seized,  of  whom  some 
were  sent  to  the  galleys,  others  condemned  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment, and  some,  through  fear  of  punishment,  were 
induced  to  recant.  The  excellent  Altieri,  who  was  one  of  the 
most  steadfast  friends  of  the  truth  in  Venice,  gives  affecting 
accounts  in  his  letters  to  Bullinger,  and  other  Protestants  in 
Switzerland,  of  the  state  of  things  around  him.  At  length, 
even  he,  highly  esteemed  as  he  was  by  the  senate,  and  agent 
as  he  had  been  for  the  Protestant  princes  in  Germany,  was 
compelled  to  quit  Venice  or  renounce  his  religion.  He  chose 
the  former  alternative,  and  after  wandering  about  with  liis 
wife  and  child,  —  one  while  staying  at  Ferrara,  then  at  Bo- 
logna, then  at  Florence  —  he  at  length  retired  to  some  place 
near  Brescia,  where  he  wrote  to  Bullinger  a  letter,  in  which 
are  these  words :  '  Know  that  I  am  in  great  trouble,  and 
danger  of  my  life  ;  nor  is  there  a  place  in  Italy  where  I  can 
be  safe  with  my  wife  and  boy.  My  fears  for  myself  increase 
daily,  for  I  know  the  wicked  will  never  rest  till  they  have 
swallowed  me  up  alive.  I  entreat  a  share  in  your  prayers.' 
This  is  the  last  intelligence  that  was  ever  heard  of  that  ex- 
cellent man.  Rome,  in  all  probability,  accomplished  his 
death  by  some  means  of  other. 

The  Protestants  of  Istria  suffered  greatly  through  the  ac- 
tivity and  cruelty  of  the  Inquisitor,  Annibale  Grisone,  who 
was  sent  from  Pome  to  extirpate  heresy  in  that  region. 
Dreadful  scenes  of  distress  took  place  in  the  beautiful  penin- 
sula of  Capo  d'lstria.  The  two  Vergerii,  both  of  whom  were 
bishops,  one  of  Capo  d'lstria,  and  the  other  of  Pola,  were  the 
special  objects  of  the  papal  vengeance.  The  latter  died  sud- 
denly, not  without  suspicion  of  having  been  carried  off  by 
poison ;  the  former  left  his  diocese,  and,  after  having  wander- 
ed about  for  some  time,  and  even  visited  the  Council  of  Trent, 


PERSECUTION   RAGES    IN    YENICE.  99 

in  which  body  he  had  a  right  to  a  seat,  he  found  himself 
compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  Grisons. 

Notwithstanding  all  that  was  done  to  eradicate  the  Prot- 
estant religion  in  Venice,  there  continued  to  be  a  considerable 
remnant,  who  faithfully  adhered  to  it.  Even  in  the  year 
1560,  those  who  followed  that  Faith  met  regularly  in  a  private 
house  for  the  worship  of  God,  and  called  a  minister  to  organ- 
ize them  into  a  church,  and  administer  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
them.  And  though  these  were  soon  afterwards  dispersed  by 
persecution,  that  city  was  not  wholly  rid  of  Protestants  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

For  a  long  time  the  senate  resisted  the  application  of  cap- 
ital punishment  to  those  who  were  convicted  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  holding  the  new  doctrines.  But  at  length  it  yielded 
this  point,  also.  How  many  suffered  death  in  that  city  and 
its  territories  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  The  mode  of 
putting  them  to  death  was  by  drowning.  And  though  this 
was  less  barbarous  than  that  of  burning,  yet  circumstances 
sufficiently  horrible  were  not  wanting.  The  prisoner  was 
taken  from  his  cell  at  the  hour  of  midnight,  and  placed  in  a 
gondola,  as  the  small  and  swiftly  gliding  boat  of  Venice  is 
called,  with  no  other  attendants  than  the  rowers,  and  a  priest 
to  act  as  a  confessor.  After  being  carried  out  into  the  outer 
harbor,  another  boat  approached,  and  came  alongside.  The 
prisoner  was  laid  on  a  plank,  whose  ends  rested  on  the  two 
boats.  His  hands  were  tied,  and  a  heavy  stone  was  attached 
to  his  feet.  A  signal  being  given,  the  boats  separated,  and 
the  victim  was  plunged  into  the  deep,  to  rise  no  more  "  till 
the  sea  gives  up  her  dead." 

The  first  person  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  city  of 
Venice,  —  though  several  had  been  previously  put  to  death 
in  the  territories  of  that  Republic,  —  was  Giulio  Guirlanda. 
He  sank  into  the  deep,  calling  upon  the  Lord  Jesus.  He  was 
in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age.     His  death  occurred  on  the 


100  SUPPRESSION    OP   THE    KEFORMATION. 

19tli  October,  loG2.  Antonio  Hicetto,  a  most  honorable  man, 
was  the  next.  Great  efforts  were  made  by  the  senate  to 
induce  him  to  recant.  The  intreaties  of  his  little  son  were 
employed  to  move  him ;  but  all  in  vain.  In  the  gondola  he 
was  firm,  prayed  for  those  who  put  him  to  death,  and  com- 
mended his  soul  to  his  Saviour.  He  was  drowned  on  the 
15th  February,  1566.  Francesco  Spinula  followed;  he  was 
drowned  ten  days  after  Ricetto.  But  the  most  distinguished 
of  all  the  martyrs  of  Venice  was  Fra  Baldo  Lupetino.  He 
was  of  a  noble  and  ancient  family,  became  a  monk,  and  rose 
to  a  high  rank  in  his  Order.  After  having  proclaimed  the 
gospel  in  various  places,  in  Italy  and  out  of  it,  both  in  the 
Italian  and  Sclavonian  languages,  he  was  thrown  into  prison 
by  the  Inquisitor  and  the  pope's  legate.  There  he  lay  almost 
twenty  years.  On  the  one  hand,  the  Protestant  German 
prmces  interceded  with  the  senate  for  his  life  ;  on  the  other, 
the  pope  and  his  Inquisitor  and  legate  demanded  his  death  — 
which  he  met  with  great  firmness,  and  in  peace. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  many  others  suffered  death 
in  Venice,  of  whose  names  history  makes  no  mention.  Be- 
sides these,  many  died  in  prison,  or  of  diseases  contracted 
during  long  confinement  there.  And  great  numbers  escaped 
to  other  lands. 

VII.     Protestants  driven  from  Locarno. 

The  existence  of  a  Protestant  church  at  Locarno,  a  small 
city  on  Lake  Maggiore,  and,  as  we  have  stated,  within  the 
limits  of  Italy,  but  under  the  government  of  the  Cantons  of 
Switzerland,  was  a  subject  of  much  regret  and  annoyance  to 
the  pope.  Nothing  was  left  unattempted  in  order  to  remove 
what  was  considered  so  great  an  evil.  The  first  and  most 
natural  means  of  effecting  this,  was  to  excite  dissensions  and 
feuds  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  the  city.  As 
the  latter  were  but  a  small  minority,  it  was  no  difiicult  matter 


PROTESTANTS   DRIVEN  FROM   LOCARNO.  101 

to  render  their  position  uncomfortable  in  the  extreme,  through 
the  annoyance  which  they  suffered  from  their  Roman  Cath- 
olic neighbors,  under  a  government  which  took  part  with  the 
oppressor  against  the  oppressed.  Several  years  of  these 
intestine  troubles  and  persecutions  passed  on,  during  which, 
the  excellent  Beccaria  was  compelled,  in  order  to  find  peace, 
to  quit  Locarno  and  retire  to  Chievenna  in  the  Grisons. 

But  another  and  bolder  measure  was  adopted  by  Rome. 
Riverda,  Bishop  of  Terracina,  was  sent  by  the  pope  to  the 
Diet  of  Switzerland,  to  excite  that  body  to  command  the 
Protestants  of  Locarno  to  abandon  that  city.  The  district 
including  it,  as  well  as  several  other  small  districts  in  its  vi- 
cinity, was  governed  by  the  Swiss  Cantons,  who,  in  rotation, 
sent  a  prefect  or  governor  to  this  province,  who  held  his  office 
for  two  years.  As  the  Roman  Catholic  cantons  were  then, 
as  now,  more  numerous  than  the  Protestants  —  though  far 
inferior  in  population,  education,  wealth,  and  all  other  re- 
sources —  the  vote  by  cantons  was  certain  to  be  unfavorable 
to  the  cause  of  the  Protestants  in  Locarno.  The  question 
was  referred,  at  last,  to  arbiters  chosen  from  the  two  cantons 
in  which  the  two  parties  are  nearly  equally  divided.  Their 
decision  was  every  thing  that  the  pope's  legate  could  desire, 
namely,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Locarno  should  either  embrace 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  or  leave  their  native  land, 
taking  with  them  their  families  and  property;  that  they 
should  not  return  tliither,  nor  settle  within  the  seven  Catho- 
lic cantons ;  and  that  those  who  had  spoken  reproachfully  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  or  held  opinions  contrary  to  both  confes- 
sions, should  be  punished.  It  was  determined,  also,  that  the 
decisions  of  the  Diet  should  be  carried  into  effect  by  the 
deputies  sent  from  the  seven  Roman  Catholic  cantons,  if 
those  from  the  four  Protestant  ones  refused  to  take  part  in 
the  matter. 

9* 


102  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE   PREFORMATION. 

In  consequence  of  tliis  decision,  on  the  part  of  the  Diet, 
the  deputies  of  the  seven  Catholic  cantons  hastened  to 
Locarno,  and  called  upon  the  prefect  and  magistrates  to  carry- 
it  into  immediate  effect.  Dreadful  was  the  distress  which 
ensued.  Those  who  were  favorable  to  the  new  opinions 
were  cited  to  appear  in  a  public  meeting,  and  declare  before 
the  deputies  of  the  cantons,  whether  they  were  ready  to 
abandon  their  faith,  or  not.  '  We  will  live  in  it,  we  will  die 
in  it,'  *  We  will  never  renounce  it,'  '  it  is  the  only  true 
faith,'  —  '  it  is  the  only  holy  faith,'  were  the  answers  which 
were  uttered  by  the  little  band  of  men,  women,  and  children, 
who  had  decided  to  adhere  to  the  gospel.  About  two  hun- 
dred persons  gave  up  their  names,  as  confessors  of  the  truth 
as  it  is  m  Jesus.  They  were  a  company  of  brave  people, 
who,  for  the  love  of  Christ,  were  willing  to  forsake  all.  In 
vain  did  they  ask  permission  to  remain  till  the  severity  of 
winter  was  past.  They  were  sternly  told  that  they  must  de- 
part immediately.  The  infamous  Riverda,  the  pope's  nuncio, 
now  arrived  from  Switzerland,  to  see  the  decree  of  the  Diet 
carried  literally  into  effect.  He  soon  had  the  audacity  to 
demand  that  the  exiles  should  surrender  both  their  property 
and  their  children !  But  the  deputies,  whilst  they  consented 
to  the  former,  refused  to  accede  to  the  latter.  Not  content 
with  what  he  had  accomplished,  he  set  about,  in  his  self- 
sufficiency,  laboring  to  convert  these  faithful  followers  of  the 
Lamb  to  the  senseless  services  of  Rome.  But  he  toiled  in 
vain.  All  his  arguments  were  promptly  and  effectually  an- 
swered. Among  those  whom  he  was  most  anxious  to  convert, 
and  by  whom  he  was  most  triumphantly  confuted,  were  three 
distinguished  ladies,  Catarina  Rosalina,  Lucia  di  Orello,  and 
Barbara  di  Montalto,  who  were  all  zealous  Protestants.  The 
last  named,  by  the  keenness  of  her  replies,  and  severity  of 
her  retorts,  greatly  provoked  the  nuncio.     He  therefore  de- 


PROTESTANTS    DRIVEN    FROM    LOCARNO.  103 

termined  to  have  her  arrested ;  but  she  hastily  descended  by 
a  stairway  which  led  down  from  her  house  —  which  was  situ- 
ated on  the  bank  of  Lake  Maggiore — 'into  a  boat,  and 
escaj^ed  from  the  hands  of  her  enemies.  A  poor  tradesman, 
of  the  name  of  Nicolas,  was  not  so  fortunate.  He  was  tried 
for  having  spoken  disrespectfully  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  put  to 
the  torture,  and  afterwards  underwent  the  sentence  of  death. 

On  the  3d  of  March,  1555,  the  little  band  of  Protestants 
left  Locarno  for  Switzerland.  As  they  could  not  pass 
through  the  territory  of  Milan,  they  were  compelled  to  pur- 
sue a  northeastern  route,  along  Lake  Maggiore,  to  its  upper 
end ;  thence  they  advanced  to  Rogoreto,  a  town  subject  to 
the  Grison  league.  There  they  rested  during  two  months, 
inasmuch  as  the  Alps  presented  an  impassable  barrier  of  ice 
and  snow.  In  the  month  of  May,  they  were  enabled  to  23ro- 
ceed  to  the  Canton  of  the  Orisons,  where  they  received  a 
joyful  welcome  from  brethren  of  the  same  faith.  Nearly 
one  half  of  their  number  accepted  the  invitation  of  the 
magistrates  to  become  citizens  of  that  mountainous,  but  to 
them,  happy  republic.  The  remainder,  amounting  to  one 
hundred  and  thirty -three,  went  forward,  as  the  summer  ad- 
vanced, to  Zurich,  whose  inhabitants  came  out  in  mass  to 
meet  them  at  their  approach,  and  gave  them  a  most  grateful 
reception. 

Short  was  the  exultation  of  the  Locarnese  upon  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Protestants.  They  lost  the  most  industrious 
and  peaceable  of  their  inhabitants.  Trade  decHned,  and 
with  it  the  prosperity  of  their  city.  A  violent  tempest,  and 
a  destructive  pestilence  soon  followed.  And,  to  fill  up  the 
cup  of  their  misery,  intestine  commotions  and  feuds  arrayed 
the  people  in  hostile  parties,  by  which  the  peace  of  the  city 
was  destroyed. 


104  SUPPRESSION     OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

VIII.     Persecutions  in  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Cremona. 

In  no  part  of  Italy  did  persecution  rage  more  than  in  the 
Duchy  of  Milan,  especially  after  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Phillip  II.,  king  of  Spam.  The  first  martyr  there  was  a 
young  nobleman  of  Lodi,  of  the  name  of  Galeazzo  Trezio, 
who  had  imbibed  the  evangelical  doctrine  through  the  preach- 
ing of  Maynardi,  an  Augustinian  monk,  and  was  confirmed 
in  the  same  by  Curio,  during  his  sojourn  at  Pavia.  Falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  Inquisition,  in  the  year  1551,  he  was 
condemned  to  be  burned  alive.  This  dreadful  punishment 
he  underwent  with  great  fortitude.  But  the  horrible  state  of 
things  in  that  Duchy  reached  its  acme  whilst  the  infamous 
Duke  of  Alva  was  governor  of  it.  In  the  year  1558,  two 
persons  were  committed  alive  to  the  flames.  One  of  them, 
a  monk,  was  forced  into  a  sort  of  pulpit  placed  near  the 
stake,  in  order  that  he  might  make  his  recantation.  But 
instead  of  doing  this,  he  seized  the  occasion  to  announce  the 
gospel  with  boldness ;  and  whilst  doing  so  was  driven  into 
the  fire  with  blows  and  curses.  The  year  following,  scarcely 
a  week  passed  without  some  one  being  made  to  suffer  as  a 
heretic.  In  the  year  1563,  eleven  citizens  of  rank  were 
thrown  into  prison.  In  1569,  a  young  priest  was  executed 
with  horrible  barbarity.  He  was  condemned  to  be  dragged  at 
the  tail  of  a  horse  to  a  gibbet,  and  there  hung.  The  former 
part  of  the  sentence  was  dispensed  with  at  the  intercession 
of  his  friends.  But  when,  after  being  half  strangled,  he  was 
taken  down,  and  still  refused  to  recant,  he  was  literally  roast- 
ed, and  his  body  thrown  to  the  dogs.  ^ 

At  Mantua,  too,  the  Inquisitors  prosecuted  their  mission  of 
extirpating  heresy  with  the  utmost  boldness.  The  then 
reigning  duke  was  a  man  of  great  humanity,  and  had  a  be- 

48  For  a  full  account  of  these  shocking  transactions,  the  reader  is  referred  to  De 
Porta'a  Historia,  etc.,  torn.  ii.  pp.  294—296, 486—488. 


DISPERSION    OF    THE    CHUECH    AT    LUCCA.  105 

coming  sense  of  what  was  due  to  himself  as  a  ruler,  and  of 
the  rights  of  his  people.  He  gave  great  offence  to  the  pope, 
by  refusing  to  send  to  Eome  for  trial  certain  persons  sus- 
pected of  heresy.  The  pope  not  only  threatened  him  with 
interdiction,  but  war  also.  And  he  would  have  executed  his 
threats,  had  it  not  been  for  the  interference  of  the  princes  of 
Italy,  who  persuaded  him  to  pardon  the  duke  on  his  submis- 
sion. Nothing  could  exceed  the  arrogance  of  the  chief 
Inquisitor  at  Mantua.  Having  seized  a  .  friend  of  the  duke 
and  thrown  him  into  prison,  he  rejected,  with  unbounded 
insolence,  the  duke's  request  that  he  might  be  liberated,  de- 
claring that  his  master,  the  pope,  was  paramount  to  any 
secular  prince. 

As  for  Cremona,  the  Inquisition,  according  to  the  testimo- 
nies of  Romish  historians,  was  worked  with  uncommon  energy 
and  success  in  that  city  and  its  territories.  The  same  thing 
may  be  said  of  Parma,  whose  duke  entered  into  a  treaty 
with  that  truculent  pope,  Paul  IV.,  by  which  he  surrendered 
the  properties  and  lives  of  his  subjects  to  the  Inquisition. 
At  Faenza,  a  nobleman  of  distinguished  virtues  having  fallen 
under  the  suspicion  of  favoring  the  '  Lutheran  doctrine,' 
was  thrown  into  a  noisome  prison,  where  he  was  detained  a 
long  time.  He  was  afterwards  subjected  to  the  torture. 
The  Inquisitors  not  being  able  to  extort  from  him  what  they 
hoped,  ordered  the  operation  to  be  repeated,  during  which, 
the  prisoner  expired  in  their  hands.  The  report  of  this 
barbarous  deed  excited  such  a  tumult  in  the  city,  that  the 
house  of  the  Inquisition  was  torn  down,  and  some  of  the 
priests  were  trodden  to  death  by  the  enraged  multitude. 

IX.     Dispersion  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Lucca. 

In  no  city  in  Italy  did  the  Eeformed  church  embrace 
more  distinguished  families  than  in  Lucca.  They  had  for 
years  assembled,  in  a  public  manner,  for  the  worship  of  God, 


106  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

after  the  mode  of  the  Protestants.  And  they  enjoyed  a 
longer  impunity  than  did  their  brethren  in  most  other  places. 
This  led  to  a  vain-glorious  spirit  and  false  security.  But  at 
length,  upon  the  accession  of  Paul  IV.  to  the  papal  see,  the 
storm  fell  upon  them.  At  the  onset,  the  professors  of  the 
Reformed  doctrine  m  that  city  did  not  act  in  a  manner  cor- 
responding to  the  expectations  which  had  been  formed  of 
them.  At  the  sight  of  the  instruments  of  torture,  many  of 
those  who  had  almost  openly  blamed  Martyr  for  having  left 
Italy  to  seek  a  refuge  in  Switzerland,  found  their  hearts  to 
fail.  They  now  blamed  themselves  for  not  having  escaped 
from  the  country  whilst  it  was  possible  to  do  so.  But  many 
succeeded  at  length  in  leaving  Italy.  In  the  year  1556, 
some  of  the  best  families  in  Lucca  reached  Geneva,  where 
their  descendants  are  to  be  found  at  this  day.  Among  them 
were  the  Micheli,  Turretini,  Calendrini,  Balbani,  Diodati, 
Burlamacchi,  and  Minutoli,  some  of  whom  have  attained 
great  distinction,  in  both  Church  and  State,  in  that  ancient 
commonwealth.  The  authorities  of  Lucca  were  so  enraged 
at  this  emigration,  that  they  offered  a  reward  of  three  hun- 
dred crowns  to  any  person  who  would  kill  any  of  them  in 
Italy,  France,  or  Flanders !  The  Council  of  Geneva  wrote, 
but  in  vain,  to  them,  to  revoke  this  barbarous  proclamation  — 
which,  however,  had  no  other  effect  than  to  put  the  refugees 
in  fear  for  their  lives. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that,  in  the  year  1679,  more  than  one 
hundred  years  after  the  time  of  which  we  are  writing.  Car- 
dinal Spinola,  then  Bishop  of  Lucca,  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  descendants  of  these  Lucchese  Protestants  at  Geneva, 
affectionately  inviting  them  to  return  to  the  beloved  bosom  of 
the  Mother  Church,  promising  them  absolution  and  a  cordial 
welcome.  But  his  hopes  were  disappointed.  They  sent  him 
a  respectful  and  able  answer,  which  was  written  by  the  pas- 
tors Burlamacchi  and  Turretini,  worthy  grandsons  of  those 


PERSECUTION   AT   FLORENCE.  107 

sires  who  had  forsaken  Italy  for  Christ.  After  giving  a 
sketch  of  the  progress  which  the  Reformed  doctrine  had 
made  in  Lucca  in  the  preceding  century,  they  examined  the 
propositions  contained  in  the  cardinal's  letter,  pronounced 
them  inadmissible,  and  concluded  with  an  earnest  and  affec- 
tionate appeal  to  their  "  kmsmen  according  to  the  flesh,"  who 
were  still  groping  in  the  darkness  of  popish  Lucca.  The 
pope  ordered  all  the  copies  of  this  letter  which  came  into 
Italy  to  be  burnt. 

X.     Persecution  at  Florence  and  other  'places  in  Tuscany, 

As  early  as  the  year  1547,  a  law  was  proclaimed  at  Flor- 
ence requiring  all  who  possessed  heretical  books,  particularly 
those  written  by  Ochino  and  Martyr,  to  deliver  them  up 
within  fifteen  days,  under  a  penalty  of  a  hundred  ducats  and 
ten  years'  confinement  in  the  galleys.  After  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Inquisition,  more  decisive  measures  were  adopted 
to  extirpate  the  heresy  which  was  lurking  in  that  city,  so 
renowned  for  its  literature,  its  science,  and  its  refinement. 
Processions  of  the  penitents,  or  those  who  recanted,  conducted 
in  a  most  imposing  manner,  were  witnessed  in  the  streets ; 
and  heretical  books  were  burned  with  vast  ceremony.  Ludo- 
vico  Domenichi,  a  man  of  learning,  who  had  published  a 
translation  of  '  Xenophon,'  was  condemned  to  the  galleys  for 
ten  years,  under  the  charge  of  having  translated  into  Italian, 
and  published,  the  Nicodemiana  of  Calvin.  These  severi- 
ties were  increased  at  a  subsequent  period,  when  Pius  V. 
altered  the  constitution  of  the  Inquisition  in  Tuscany,  by 
dispensing  with  the  three  commissaries  of  the  State,  and 
assigning  the  whole  work  to  one  Inquisitor,  as  being  more 
simple  and  convenient.  This  change,  which  boded  any  thing 
else  than  good  to  the  people,  together  with  the  facihty  with 
which  Cosmo  delivered  up  to  the  pope  the  excellent  Car- 
nesecchi,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  more  fully  hereafter,  spread 


108  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE    REFORMATION. 

dismay  throughout  the  city.  Many  fled ;  others  were  sent  to 
Rome.  The  Inquisitor  worked  with  great  diligence.  All 
who  visited  Germany  and  Switzerland,  were  exposed  to 
a  rigorous  examination  and  surveillance. 

These  proceedings  drove  many  distinguished  men  from 
Tuscany  to  foreign  parts.  Among  these  we  may  mention 
Michael  Angelo  Florio,  a  popular  preacher  in  his  own 
country,  and  who  became  pastor  of  a  Protestant  church,  first 
among  the  Grisons,  and  afterwards  at  London ;  ^^  Nardi,  so 
distinguished  in  Italian  literature;  Pietro  Gelido,  who  had 
served  the  Duke  as  secretary  at  the  court  of  France,  and 
resident  agent  at  Venice,  and  who  ultimately  settled  at 
Geneva ;  and  Antonio  Albizio,  who  belonged  to  one  of  the 
noblest  families,  and  having  become  acquainted  with  the 
gospel  by  reading  the  Scriptures,  retired  into  Suabia,  where 
he  divided  his  time  between  devotional  exercises  and  literary 
studies,  until  his  death  in  1626. 

At  Sienna,  which  about  this  time  became  annexed  to  the 
Duchy  of  Tuscany,  to  which  it  still  belongs,  similar  proceed- 
ings took  place.  The  defection  of  Ochino,  the  Soccini,  and 
Paleario  from  the  Roman  faith,  led  the  Inquisitors  to  be 
exceedingly  diligent  in  ferreting  out  heresy.  In  the  year 
1567,  the  persecution  became  much  severer,  and  many  fled; 
others  were  subjected  to  trial  on  the  spot,  and  not  a  few  were 
sent  to  Rome. 

XI.     Persecution  at  Naples. 

The  Spanish  government  endeavored  for  several  years  to 
introduce  the  Inquisition,  as  it  existed  in  Spain,  into  Naples ; 
but  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  repugnance  of  the  people, 
apparently   sustained   by  the   pope.     These  dissensions  for 


49  He  wrote  a  life  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  entitled:  Historia  della  Vita  e  della  morte 
de  Vilhistriss.  Signora  Giovanna  Graia,  gia  Regina  eletta  e  publicata  d''Inghiltena, 
etc. 


PERSECUTION    AT    NAPLES.  109 

awhile  saved  the  Protestants  from  open  persecution.  At 
length  one  of  their  number,  Lorenzo  Romano,  a  native  of 
Sicily,  who  had  been  in  Germany  and  imbibed  the  Reformed 
doctrine  there,  and  attempted  to  propagate  it  at  Caserta,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Naples,  was  arrested,  and  through  fear  not 
only  recanted,  but  betrayed  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  his  brethren.  This  led  to  much  distress.  Many  were 
thrown  into  prison,  and  not  a  few  were  sent  to  Rome,  to 
undergo  death  by  being  burned.  These  severities  continued 
for  several  years.  On  the  24th  of  March,  1.564,  two  noble- 
men, Giovanni  Francesco  d' Alois,  of  Caserta,  and  Giovanni 
Bernardino  di  Gargano,  of  Aversa,  having  been  convicted  of 
heresy,  were  beheaded  in  the  market-place,  and  their  bodies 
consumed  to  ashes  in  the  sight  of  the  people.^  Such  a 
disastrous  effect  did  persecution  have  upon  the  prosperity  of 
Naples,  that  commerce  and  trade  declined  to  such  a  degree 
that  whole  streets  were  deserted. 

The  Protestant  cause  suffered  much  at  Naples  by  the  dis- 
semination of  Arian  and  other  errors.  The  spirit  of  specula- 
tion had  the  effect  of  diverting  men's  minds  from  the  simple 
gospel.  And  when  the  true  source  of  spiritual  life  is  aban- 
doned, sooner  or  later  even  the  form  of  religion  will  dis- 
appear. Many  in  Naples  who  were  favorable  to  the 
Reformed  doctrine,  endeavored  to  maintain  it  secretly,  whilst 
openly  they  frequented  the  Roman  Catholic  churches,  par- 
took of  the  mass,  and  conducted  themselves  in  every  respect 
as  if  they  were  Catholics.  This  conduct  was  calculated  to 
destroy  all  true  decision  of  character,  all  courage  in  the  cause 
and  service  of  the  Saviour,  and  all  proper  sensibility  of  con- 
science. Even  many  of  these  persons,  being  suspected  of 
holding  the  evangelical  faith,  were  arrested,  and  had  to  pur- 
chase  their   lives   by  denying   their  convictions.     Some  of 

50  Giannone,  Histoire  Civile  de  Naples,  b.  xxxii.,  Chap.  V.  sect.  11. 

10 


110  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

them  were  not  so  fortunate,  or  unfortunate,  rather,  as  to 
escape  even  in  this  manner. 

To  avoid  these  persecutions,  many  set  out  with  a  determi- 
nation to  abandon  forever  their  native  land.  And  whilst 
some  of  them,  certainly,  persevered  in  this  resolution,  many 
others,  it  is  said,  upon  reaching  the  Alps,  and  looking  back 
from  their  summits  upon  the  beautiful  country  which  they 
had  left,  had  not  the  courage  to  go  farther.  Like  Lot's  wife, 
they  turned  back,  and  most  of  them,  upon  their  return  to 
Naples,  were  thrown  into  prison ;  and,  having  submitted  to  do 
penance,  passed  the  rest  of  their  lives,  shunned  by  all  good 
men,  and  rendered  miserable  by  a  feeling  of  remorse  and 
self-degradation. 

XII.     Destruction  of  the   Waldenses  in   Calabria. 

And  now  the  last,  the  fatal  day  for  these  devoted  people 
drew  near.  We  have  stated  that  this  colony  was  planted  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  by  emigrants  chiefly  from  the  valley 
of  Pragela  in  Piedmont.  They  brought  with  them  httle 
except  the  simple  piety  which  their  fathers  had  maintained 
from  the  primitive  ages  of  Christianity.  They  asked  for 
lands  in  Calabria,  and  obtained  them  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Cosenza.^^  For  two  hundred  years  they  cultivated  the 
ground  in  peace,  living  on  good  terms  with  their  Roman 
Catholic  neighbors.  It  is  true,  that  for  awhile  the  priests 
were  disposed  to  give  them  trouble,  because  they  neither 
came  to  the  mass  nor  to  the  confessional,  but  held  meetings 
of  their  own,  in  their  private  houses.  But  the  proprietors  of 
the  lands  on  which  they  had  settled,  finding  them  peaceable 
and  industrious  people,  and  punctual  in  paying  their  rents, 
protected    them   from   molestation.     And   even   the   priests 


51  In  Calabria  Citeriore,  about  the  middle  of  the  '  foot,'   as  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  Italian  peninsula  is  called. 


WALDENSES    IN    CALABRIA.  Ill 

themselves,  finding  that  these  excellent  people  were  exem- 
plary in  rendering  the  tithes,  and  in  meeting  all  the  other 
claims  of  the  Church,  soon  ceased  to  trouble  them.  We 
regret  to  say  that  in  the  lapse  of  time,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  these  good  people  lost  in  some  degree,  that  just 
abhorrence  of  some  of  the  doctrines  and  services  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  their  fathers  entertained. 
For,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  they  were  in  the  habit  of  attending  mass  in 
the  Romish  Churches,  but  they  had  not  relinquished  their  own 
private  meetings.  As  they  had  few  schools,  and  no  facilities 
for  educating  their  pastors,  they  had  to  look  for  ministers  of 
the  gospel  to  the  churches  which  held  the  same  faith  in  the 
valleys  of  Piedmont.  As  there  was  often  no  little  hazard  in 
passing  from  the  land  of  the  Waldenses,  at  least,  for  those 
who  held  their  religious  doctrines,  and  who  went  forth  to 
spread  them,  the  Waldensian  churches  in  Calabria  were  fre- 
quently, and  for  considerable  periods,  very  poorly  supplied 
with  pastors.  Indeed,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they 
were  sometimes  entirely  destitute  of  spiritual  leaders. 

"What  must  have  been  the  joy,  then,  of  these  people,  to  hear 
of  the  progress  of  a  religion  which  was  so  like  that  of  their 
forefathers,  and  which  had  always  been  held  among  them- 
selves ?  .  As  the  Truth  made  progress  in  Italy,  it  waked  up  a 
new  spirit  among  this  branch  of  the  Waldensian  church. 
Feeling  the  need  of  more  ministers  of  the  gospel,  they  applied 
to  the  valleys  in  Piedmont  and  to  Geneva  for  pastors,  or,  at 
least,  for  the  visits  of  faithful  spiritual  guides.  Nor  was 
their  application  in  vain.  Faithful  missionaries  came  and 
labored  with  much  zeal  to  revive  the  spirit  of  true  piety 
among  them.  Great  success  attended  their  labors.  Not 
content  with  spreading  the  Truth  among  the  colonies  of  those 
of  the  same  faith,  they  labored  to  propagate  it  in  the  neigh- 
boring towns,  in  the  province  of  Basilicata. 


112  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

But  at  length  Rome  roused  herself,  like  a  lioness  greedy 
for  the  prey.  Her  emissaries,  the  Inquisitors,  whilst  travers- 
ing the  rest  of  Italy,  would  not  be  likely  to  pass  by  the 
villages  occupied  by  these  inoffensive  people.  They  had 
already  tasted  blood,  and  their  nerves  had  become  capable  of 
enduring  distressing  scenes.  And  when  the  determination 
was  taken  at  Rome  to  suppress  the  Waldensian  churches  in 
Calabria,  Valerio  Malvicmo,  and  Alfonso  Urbino,  two  monks, 
who  have  won  for  themselves  an  immortal  infamy,  set  off 
with  alacrity  from  the  Eternal  City,  on  the  bloody  errand. 
Their  manner,  at  first,  was  gentle  and  kind.  But  their 
attempts  to  persuade  the  inhabitants  of  Santo  Sisto,  one  of 
the  two  chief  places  occupied  by  these  people,  to  return  to 
the  mass,  utterly  failed.  Sooner  than  do  this,  they  retired  in 
a  body  to  the  forests,  leaving  behind  them  only  a  few  aged 
persons  and  children.  Such  was  the  result  of  the  first  move- 
ment at  Santo  Sisto. 

Stratagem  triumphed  at  La  Guardia,  the  other  consider- 
able place  occupied  by  these  people,  and  which  stands  on  the 
seashore.  Arriving  at  this  place  sooner  than  the  intelli- 
gence of  their  proceedings  at  Santa  Sisto,  they  told  the 
people  that  their  brethren  of  that  place  had  complied  with 
their  demands.  Deceived  by  these  statements,  and  intimi- 
dated by  the  probable  consequences  of  refusal,  the  people  of 
this  place  went  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  partook  of  the 
mass.  When  they  had  learned  the  true  state  of  the  case, 
they  were  filled  with  indignation,  and  with  difficulty  re- 
strained by  Salvatore  Spinello,  the  feudatory  superior  of 
the  town,  from  joining  their  brethren  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  woods.  In  the  mean  while  the  work  of  death  was  com- 
menced among  the  latter.  The  monks  had  brought  up  two 
companies  of  soldiers,  to  hunt  these  poor  people  like  beasts  of 
prey.  Having  discovered  their  retreat,  they  fell  upon  them, 
with  cries  of  Ammazzi  !  ammazzi  1     '  Murder  them !  murder 


PERSECUTION   IN    CALABRIA.  113 

them ! '  Many  were  slain  on  the  spot.  But  some  escaped  to 
a  mountain,  and  there  begged  the  captain  who  was  sent 
against  them  to  spare  this  effusion  of  blood,  and  they  would 
quit  the  country  to  go  whithersoever  they  miglt  be  command- 
ed to  retire.  This  offer  being  rejected,  and  they  driven  to  des- 
peration, they  made  such  a  brave  resistance  that  their  enemies 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  This  was  the  signal  for 
the  destruction  of  the  whole  colony.  Several  companies  of 
soldiers  were  ordered  from  Naples  to  the  murderous  scene ; 
and  even  the  viceroy  followed  in  person,  to  see  that  the 
bloody  work  should  be  effectually  done. 

What  need  is  there  of  words  ?  Santo  Sisto  was  delivered 
up  to  fire  and  sword  !  Hordes  of  handitti,  or  outlaws,  were 
encouraged  by  a  proclamation  of  pardon  for  all  such  as  came 
to  help  the  military  hunt  the  poor,  wretched  Waldenses,  who 
were  forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  mountains.  Tracking  them 
to  their  retreats,  they  killed  most  of  them.  Some,  however, 
escaped  to  the  summits,  where  they  nearly  all  died  of  hunger. 
Such  was  the  fate  of  Santo  Sisto.  But  worse  things,  if  pos- 
sible, remained  for  the  inhabitants  of  La  Guardia.  Whilst  the 
military  were  butchering  the  flying  inhabitants  of  Santo  Sisto, 
the  Inquisitors  went  to  La  Guardia,  and  with  a  show  of  kind- 
ness induced  many  of  the  inhabitants  to  come  out  to  meet 
them  in  conference.  But  no  sooner  had  they  made  their 
appearance  than  seventy  of  them  were  seized,  and  conducted 
in  chains  to  the  neighboring  village  of  Montalto.  There  they 
were  subjected  to  the  '  question '  or  torture,  to  induce  them 
both  to  renounce  their  faith  and  to  accuse  themselves  and 
their  brethren  of  having  committed,  in  their  religious  assem- 
blies, the  odious  crimes  imputed  to  them  by  their  enemies. 
To  accomplish  this,  some  of  them  were  made  to  endure  the 
most  dreadful  agonies.  Stefano  Carlino  was  tortured  until 
his  bowels  gushed  out.  Another,  named  Verminello,  under- 
went awful  suffering  for  eight  hours,  on  a  horrid  instrument, 
10* 


114  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

called  the  hell.  Still  he  persisted  in  denying  the  calumnies 
charged  upon  him.  A  person  of  the  name  of  Marzone,  was 
stripped  naked,  beaten  with  iron  rods,  dragged  through  the 
streets,  and  tttfen  knocked  down  with  blows  from  torches. 
One  of  his  sons  was  thrown  headlong,  by  order  of  the  Inquis- 
itors, from  the  top  of  a  tower,  because  he  would  not  embrace 
a  crucifix  that  was  presented  to  him,  and  thus  renounce  his 
own  religion  for  that  of  Rome.  Bernardino  Conte,  when  on 
the  way  to  the  stake,  threw  away  a  crucifix  that  was  forced 
into  his  hands,  and,  for  doing  this,  was  conveyed  to  Cozenza, 
where  he  was  covered  over  with  pitch,  and  burned,  in  the 
presence  of  a  vast  multitude  of  people.  The  treatment  of 
the  women  was  such  as  cannot  with  propriety  be  described. 
Demons  could  not  have  behaved  worse  than  did  the  Inquisi- 
tors and  their  myrmidons.  Sixty  tender  females  were  put  to 
the  torture,  the  greater  part  of  whom  died  in  prison,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  wounds  remaining  undressed. 

But  still  the  colony  was  not  entirely  extirpated  at  this 
time  (1558)  ;  the  final  blow  came  two  years  later,  under  the 
government  of  the  Marquis  of  Buccianici.  A  great  number 
of  people  were  seized  and  brought  to  Montalto,  where  occur- 
red the  shocking  scenes  described  in  a  letter  from  a  Roman 
Catholic  servant,  who  was  an  eyewitness,  to  his  master,  As- 
canio  Caraccioli,  and  published  in  Italy  with  other  documents 
relating  to  this  affair.     We  give  the  principal  part  of  it :  — 

'  Most  illustrious  Sir  —  Having  written  you  from  time  to 
time  what  has  been  done  here  in  the  affair  of  heresy,  I  have 
now  to  inform  you  of  the  dreadful  justice  which  began  to  be 
executed  on  these  Lutherans  early  this  morning,  being  the 
11th  of  June.  And,  to  tell  you  the  truth,  I  can  compare  it 
to  nothing  but  the  slaughter  of  so  many  sheep.  They  were 
all  shut  up  in  one  house,  as  in  a  sheepfold.  The  executioner 
went,  and  bringing  out  one  of  them,  covered  his  face  with  a 
napkin,  or  benda,  as  we  call  it,  led  him  out  to  a  field  near  the 


EXECUTIONS    AT    SANTO    SISTO.  115 

house,  and  causing  him  to  kneel  down,  cut  his  throat  with  a 
knife.  Then,  taking  off  the  bloody  napkin,  he  went  and 
brought  out  another,  whom  he  put  to  death  after  the  same 
manner.  In  this  way  the  whole  number,  amounting  to  eighty- 
eight  men,  were  butchered.  I  leave  you  to  figure  to  yourself 
the  lamentable  spectacle,  for  I  can  scarcely  refrain  from  tears 
while  I  write ;  nor  was  there  any  person,  who,  after  witness- 
ing the  execution  of  one,  could  stand  to  look  on  a  second. 
The  meekness  and  patience  with  which  they  went  to  martyr- 
dom and  death  are  incredible.  Some  of  them  at  their  death 
professed  themselves  of  the  same  faith  with  us,  but  the  great- 
er part  died  in  their  accursed  obstinacy.  All  the  old  men 
met  their  death  with  cheerfulness,  but  the  young  exhibited 
symptoms  of  fear.  I  still  shudder  while  I  think  of  the 
executioner,  with  the  bloody  knife  in  his  teeth,  the  dripping 
napkin  in  his  hand,  and  his  arms  besmeared  with  gore,  going 
to  the  house,  and  taking  out  one  victim  after  another,  just  as 
the  butcher  does  the  sheep  which  he  means  to  kill.  Accord- 
ing to  orders,  wagons  are  already  come  to  carry  away  the  dead 
bodies,  which  are  appointed  to  be  quartered,  and  hung  up  on 
the  public  roads  from  one  end  of  Calabria  to  the  other.  Unless 
his  Holiness  and  the  Viceroy  of  Naples  command  the  Mar- 
quis of  Buccianici,  the  governor  of  this  province,  to  stay  his 
hand  and  leave  off,  he  will  go  on  to  put  others  to  the  torture, 
and  multiply  the  executions  until  he  has  destroyed  the  whole. 
Even  to-day,  a  decree  has  passed,  that  one  hundred  grown 
up  women  shall  be  put  to  the  question,  and  afterwards 
executed ;  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  complete  mixture, 
and  we  may  be  able  to  say,  in  well  sounding  language,  that 
so  many  persons  were  punished,  partly  men  and  partly 
women.  This  is  all  that  I  have  to  say  of  this  act  of  justice. 
It  is  now  eight  o'clock,  and  I  shall  presently  hear  accounts 
of  what  was  said  by  these  obstinate  people,  as  they  were  led 
to  execution.     Some  have  testified  such  obstinacy  and  stub- 


116  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE   REFORMATION. 

bomness  as  to  refuse  to  look  on  a  crucifix,  or  confess  to  a 
priest ;  and  they  are  to  be  burned  alive.  The  heretics  taken 
in  Calabria  amount  to  sixteen  hundred,  all  of  whom  are  con- 
demned ;  but  only  eighty-eight  have  as  yet  been  put  to  death. 
This  people  came  originally  from  the  valley  of  Angrogna,  ^^ 
near  Savoy,  and  in  Calab/ia  are  called  Ultramontani.  Four 
other  places  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  are  inhabited  by  the 
same  race,  but  I  do  not  know  that  they  behave  ill ;  for  they 
are  a  simple,  unlettered  people,  entirely  occupied  with  the 
spade  and  plough,  and,  I  am  told,  show  themselves  sufficiently 
religious  at  the  hour  of  death.'  ^ 

Should  the  reader  doubt  the  simple  statement  given  by  an 
intelligent  servant,  let  him  take  what  follows,  quoted  from  a 
Neapolitan  historian  of  that  age,  and  who  is  not  likely  to 
have  exaggerated  any  thing  that  relates  to  the  treatment  of 
these  poor  people.  After  giving  some  account  of  these 
'  heretics,'  as  he  considered  them  to  be,  he  adds :  —  *  Some 
had  their  throats  cut,  others  were  sawn  through  the  middle, 
and  others  thrown  from  the  top  of  a  high  cliff;  all  were 
cruelly  but  deservedly  put  to  death.  It  was  strange  to  hear 
of  their  obstinacy ;  for  while  the  father  saw  his  son  put  to 
death,  and  the  son  his  father,  they  not  only  exhibited  no 
symptoms  of  grief,  but  said  joyfully,  that  they  would  be 
angels  of  God ;  so  much  had  the  devil,  to  whom  they  had 
given  themselves  up  as  a  prey,  deceived  them.'  ^ 

The  remaining  portion  of  the  history  of  the  Waldensian 
Colony  in  Calabria,  may  be  told  in  few  words.     When  their 


52  This  is  a  mistake ;  they  came  originally  from  the  adjoining  valley  of  Pragela, 
though  it  is  possible  that  they  received  some  accessions  from  Angrogna,  on  account 
of  its  crowded  population.  All  the  valleys  inhabited  by  the  Waldenses  were,  at 
that  time,  under  the  government  of  Savoy. 

53  Pantaleon,  Rerum  in  Eccles.  Gest.  Hist,  f,  337,  338.  De  Porta,  torn,  ii  p.  309, 
312,  — quoted  by  Dr.  McCrie,  in  his  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  251,  252. 

54  Tommaso  Costo,  Seconda  Parte  del  Compendio  delV  Istoria  di  Napoli.,  p.  257,— 
quoted  by  Dr.  McCrie,  in  his  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  252,  253. 


PERSECUTION    IN    THE    POPE's    DOMINIONS.  117 

persecutors  were  satiated  with  blood,  it  was  not  difficult  to 
dispose  of  the  rest  of  the  prisoners.  The  men  were  sent  to 
the  Spanish  galleys ;  the  women  and  children  were  sold  for 
slaves.  And  with  the  exception  of  a  few  who  renounced 
their  religion,  this  whole  colony,  which  at  the  commencement 
of  the  sixteenth  century  comprised  a  population  of  four 
thousand  souls,  was  exterminated.^ 

XIII.     Persecution  in  the  Pope's  Dominions. 

If  the  Inquisition  was  less  used  and  less  terrible  in  Italy 
than  in  Spain,  it  was  because  the  pope's  influence  over  the 
secular  governments  was  greater  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter,  and  to  a  great  degree  superseded  the  necessity  of 
having  an  antagonistic  ecclesiastical  power,  the  equal  if  not 
rival  of  the  civil.  Most  of  all  was  this  true  of  the  '  Estates 
of  the  Church,'  or  that  portion  of  Italy  in  which  the  popes 
were  temporal  sovereigns  as  well  as  supreme  in  spiritual 
affairs.  There,  there  was  little  need  of  the  Inquisition,  for 
the  secular  and  spiritual  powers  coincided  in  will  and 
purpose,  for  they  were  in  the  same  hands.  Nevertheless, 
the  Inquisition  was  established  in  Rome,  as  well  as  through- 
out all  Italy,  though  it  was,  probably,  more  mild  there  in 
its  operations  than  in  some  other  parts.  When,  in  obedience 
to  its  decisions,  men  were  put  to  death,  it  was  done  with 
fewer  circumstances  calculated  to  strike  the  imaginations  of 
the  masses  than  in  Spain.  The  convicts  went  singly,  or  in 
small  numbers  at  a  time,  to  the  stake.  They  were  commonly 
strangled  before  they  were  burned.  Sometimes  instead  of 
being  burned,  they  were  drowned,  as  in  Venice. 

Many  Protestants  were  thrown  into  the  prisons  of  Rome 
by  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  were  executed  by  Julius  III.  But 
Paul  ly.  far  exceeded  his  predecessor  in  his  love  of  blood. 

55  Perrin,  Hist,  of  the  Waldenses,  pp.  206,  207. 


118  SUPPRESSION   OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

During  the  few  years  of  his  pontificate  the  Inquisition  spread 
alarm  every  where.  Princes  and  princesses,  clergy  and  laity, 
bishops,  priests,  and  friars,  entire  academies,  the  Sacred 
College,  and  even  the  '  holy  office '  itself,  fell  under  suspicion 
in  respect  to  heresy.  Cardinals  Morone  and  Pole,  Foscarari, 
Bishop  of  Modena,  Luighi  Priuli,  and  other  persons  of  emi- 
nence, were  prosecuted  as  heretics.  It  was  at  last  found 
necessary  to  introduce  laymen  into  the  holy  office,  because  so 
many  of  the  Inquisitors  themselves  were  believed  by  the 
pope  to  be  tainted  with  heresy.  ^*^  Such  was  the  fanatical 
zeal  of  this  infallible  dotard  that,  when  on  his  dying  bed,  he 
even  sent  for  some  of  the  cardinals,  and  recommended  the 
Inquisition  to  their  earnest  support !  As  soon  as  the  news  of 
his  death  spread  in  Rome,  the  populace  assembled  in  mass, 
and  having  Hberated  the  prisoners,  burned  the  house  of  the 
Inquisition  to  the  ground,  broke  the  statue  down  which  Paul 
IV.  had  erected  to  himself,  and  threw  the  pieces  into  the 
Tiber. 

Although  Pius  IV.,  who  succeeded,  was  of  a  mild  dispo- 
sition, he  was  unable  to  control  Cardinal  Michele  Ghisleri, 
president  of  the  Inquisition.  In  his  time  the  Waldenses  in 
Calabria  were,  as  we  have  just  related,  persecuted  to  extinc- 
tion. The  Inquisition  was  reopened  in  a  house  beyond  the 
Tiber,  fitted  up  with  cells,  and  was  commonly  called  the 
*  Lutheran  prison.'  In  this  prison  Philip  Camerarius  was 
confined  for  two  months,  and  was  only  liberated  through  the 
interference  of  the  ambassador  of  the  Emj)eror  of  Germany 
and  the  threats  of  retaliation  made  by  the  Protestant  princes 
of  that  country.  Pompeio  di  Monti,  a  pious  Neapolitan 
nobleman,  shared  the  same  room  in  the  Inquisition  with  him. 
They  prayed  and  conversed  together  respecting  the  things 


56  Bernini,  Tstoria  di  tutte  Pheresia,  secolo  XVI.  cap.  VII.      Puigblanch's  Hist,  of 
the  Inquisition,  i.  61,  62. 


PERSECUTION    IN    THE    POPE's    DOMINIONS.  119 

pertaining  to  salvation.  They  read  together  a  Latin  Bible, 
which  the  nobleman  had  procured,  and  which  he  kept  con- 
cealed in  his  bed.  The  year  foUowmg,  Di  Monti  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  burned  alive.  But  his  friends  advancing  seven 
thousand  crowns  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  commutation  of 
this  sentence,  he  was  strangled,  and  his  body  afterwards  com- 
mitted to  the  flames.  ^^ 

Under  Pius  V.,  the  infamous  Ghisleri,  spoken  of  above, 
who  ascended  the  pontifical  throne  in  1566,  persecution  raged 
again  in  the  papal  states.  At  Bologna  several  persons  of 
distinction  were  burned  alive,  and  others  sent  to  Rome. 
Many  of  the  students  from  Germany  were  imprisoned  or 
compelled  to  fly.  In  the  year  1568,  one  who  then  resided 
on  the  borders  of  Italy,  wrote  as  follows :  —  'At  Rome  some 
are  every  day  burned,  hanged,  or  beheaded.  A  distinguished 
person,  named  Carnesecchi,  formerly  ambassador  to  the  Duke 
of  Tuscany,  has  been  committed  to  the  flames.  Two  persons 
of  still  greater  distinction.  Baron  Bernardo  di  Angole,  and 
Count  di  Petigliano,  a  genuine  and  brave  Roman,  are  in 
prison.  After  long  resistance,  they  were  at  last  induced  to 
recant,  on  a  promise  that  they  should  be  set  at  liberty.  But 
what  was  the  consequence  ?  The  one  was  condemned  to  pay 
a  fine  of  eighty  thousand  crowns,  and  to  suffer  perpetual 
imprisonment ;  the  other  to  pay  one  thousand  crowns,  and  be 
confined  for  life  in  the  convent  of  the  Jesuits.  Thus  have 
they,  by  a  dishonorable  defection,  purchased  a  life  worse  than 
death.'  ^  Speaking  of  the  rigor  of  the  Inquisition  in  Italy, 
and  the  suddenness  of  executions  at  this  period,  Muretus  said 
to  De  Thou :  —  *  We  know  not  what  becomes  of  people  here : 
I  am  terrified  every  morning  when  I  rise,  lest  I  should  be 

57  Relatio  de    Captivitate  Romana  Philippi   Camerarii  et  Petri  Rieteri,  p.  7  —  30, 
54  —  64  ;  as  quoted  in  Dr.  McCrie's  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  256,  257. 

58  Tobias  Eglinus  ad  Bullingerum,  2  Marr.  1568,  —  quoted  in  Dr.  McCrie's  Hist,  of 
the  Reformation  in  Italy.,  pp.  257,  258. 


120  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE   REFORMATION. 

told  that  such  and  such  a  one  is  no  more ;  and,  if  it  should  be 
so,  we  durst  not  say  a  word.'  ^^ 

But  the  despotism  of  the  popes  was  beginning  to  wane. 
Bold  as  was  Pius  V.,  he  did  not  dare  to  refuse  to  surrender 
Galeas  de  San  Severino,  Count  of  Caiazzo,  a  favorite  of 
Charles  IX.  of  France  (whom  he  had  thrown  into  the  prison 
of  the  Inquisition  at  Rome  as  a  Huguenot),  when  demanded 
by  the  Marquis  de  Pisano,  in  the  name  of  his  master.  He 
gave  him  up,  however,  very  reluctantly,  saying  that  the  king 
had  sent  him  an  imbriacone,  or  drunken  fool.  It  was  this 
same  nobleman  who,  when  ordered  by  Sixtus  Y.  to  quit  his 
territories  within  eight  days,  replied :  — '  Your  territories  are 
not  so  large  but  that  I  can  quit  them  within  twenty-four 
hours.' ^ 

XVI.      Notices  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the    Italian 
Martyrs. 

According  to  Scaliger,  a  person  of  the  name  of  Jacobini, 
was  the  first  Protestant  martyr  in  Italy.  But  Cugas  denies 
that  he  was  a  Protestant,  and  affirms  that  he  only  differed 
from  the  Roman  Church  in  some  things,  and  adds  that,  in 
those  days,  '  they  burned  men  for  a  smaU  matter.'  Others 
assert  that  Faventino  Fannio,  a  native  of  Faenza,  a  town  in 
the  States  of  the  Church,  was  the  first  who  suffered  death 
for  the  Protestant  Faith  in  that  country.  But  this  is  a  point 
which  is  not  worth  the  trouble  of  an  investigation.  Whether 
the  first  martyr  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  Faventino  Fannio, 
who  became  acquainted  with  the  Truth  by  reading  the  Scrip- 
tures and  other  religious  books  in  his  native  tongue,  became 
very   active  in  its  propagation.      He   went  from   place   to 


59  Thuana,  Collect,  des  Maiseaux,  torn.  i.  p.  16,  —  quoted  by  Dr.   McCrie  in  his 
History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  p.  258. 

60  Thuana,  Collect,  des  Maiseanx,  torn.  i.  pp.  3,  4,  and  5,  —  quoted  in  Dr.  McCrie's 
History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  p.  259. 


DISTINGUISHED    MARTYRS.  121 

place,  in  the  province  of  Romagna,  instructing  in  each,  a 
few  persons  in  the  gospel,  and  enjoining  upon  them  to  com- 
municate to  others  the  knowledge  which  they  had  acquired. 
He  was  arrested  by  the  Inquisitors,  and,  through  fear,  recant- 
ed once.  But  having  attained  more  knowledge  of  the  grace 
of  God,  and  greater  strength  in  the  principles  of  the  gospel, 
he  labored  with  all  diligence  till  he  was  arrested  a  second 
time,  and  thrown  into  prison  at  Ferrara.  There  he  was  vis- 
ited by  Olympia  Morata,  by  Lavinia  della  Rovere,  and  other 
persons  of  distinction,  who  were  greatly  edified  by  his  con- 
versation and  prayers.  During  his  imprisonment,  which 
lasted  two  years,  he  was  the  instrument  of  great  spiritual 
good,  both  to  the  numerous  visitors  who  called  upon  him  and 
to  his  fellow-prisoners.  He  also  occupied  much  of  his  time  in 
writing  letters  and  meditations  on  religious  subjects,  which 
were  circulated  among  his  friends,  and  some  of  which  were 
published  after  his  death.  In  the  year  1550,  Pope  Julius  HI. 
gave  orders  for  his  execution.  He  was  first  strangled  and 
then  burned. 

About  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  did  Domen- 
ico  Casablanca  suffer  death.  He  was  a  native  of  Bassano,  a 
city  in  the  Venetian  territories.  He  became  acquainted 
with  the  truth  whilst  a  soldier  in  Germany,  in  the  armies  of 
Charles  V.  After  his  return  he  endeavored  to  make  known 
the  gospel  wherever  he  went.  But  he  was  soon  arrested, 
thrown  into  prison  at  Piacenza,  and,  refusing  to  recant,  re- 
ceived the  crown  of  martyrdom  in  his  thirtieth  year.  ^^ 

Among  the  Italian  martyrs  and  reformers,  Mollio,  the 
Bologna  professor,  ranks  deservedly  high.     For  several  years 

Cl  The  reader  will  find  much  respecting  these  two  martyrs  in  the  Opera  Olympics 
Morata,  pp.  90,  102,  107,  Hisloire  des  Martyrs,  b.  186,  187,  and  487.  And  above  all, 
in  the  work  of  Francesco  Nigro,  of  Bassano,  entitled  :  De  Fannii  Faventiniac  Dom- 
inici  Bassanensis  morte,  qui  nuper  ob  Christum  in  Italia  Komani  Fontijicis  jvssu  im- 
pie  occisi  sunt,  brevis  historia. 

11 


122  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE    REFORMATION. 

after  the  flight  of  Ochino  and  Martyr,  he  was  greatly  ex- 
posed, and,  in  fact,  was  more  than  once  arrested  and  thrown 
into  prison,  from  which  he  was,  however,  enabled  to  escape. 
But  at  last  he  was  seized  at  Eavenna,  shortly  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Pope  Julius  III.,  and  carried  to  Rome.  There  he 
was  cited  to  appear  before  the  six  Inquisitors  and  their  epis- 
copal assessors,  at  a  public  meeting  of  the  holy  office.  Be- 
fore this  dread  tribunal  a  number  of  prisoners  were  made  to 
appear,  with  torches  in  their  hands,  all  of  whom  recanted 
and  did  penance,  except  Mollio  and  one  Tisserano,  a  native 
of  Perugio.  Being  allowed  to  defend  himself,  Mollio  spoke 
with  great  ability  on  the  subjects  of  justification  by  faith,  the 
merit  of  good  works,  auricular  confession,  and  the  sacraments. 
He  pronounced  the  power  claimed  by  the  pope  and  his  clergy 
to  be  unchristian,  and  denounced,  in  the  severest  terms,  'their 
avarice,  their  tyranny,  and  their  other  vices.  *  As  for  you, 
cardinals  and  bishops,'  said  he,  '  if  I  were  satisfied  that  you 
had  justly  obtained  that  power  which  you  assume  to  your- 
selves, and  that  you  had  risen  to  eminence  by  virtuous  deeds, 
and  not  by  blind  ambition  and  the  arts  of  profligacy,  I  would 
not  say  a  word  to  you.  But  since  I  know,  on  the  best 
grounds,  that  you  have  set  moderation,  and  modesty,  and 
honor,  and  virtue  at  defiance,  I  am  constrained  to  treat  you 
without  ceremony,  and  to  declare  that  your  power  is  not  of 
God,  but  of  the  devil.  If  it  were  apostolical,  as  you  would 
make  the  poor  world  believe,  then  your  manner  of  life  would 
resemble  that  of  the  apostles.  But  when  I  perceive  the 
filth,  and  falsehood,  and  profaneness  with  which  it  is  over- 
spread, what  can  I  think  or  say  of  your  church,  but  that  it  is 
a  receptacle  of  thieves  and  a  den  of  robbers  ?  What  is  your 
doctrine  but  a  dream  —  a  lie  forged  by  hypocrites  ?  Your 
very  countenances  proclaim  that  your  belly  is  your  god. 
Your  great  object  is  to  seize  and  amass  wealth  by  every 
species  of  injustice  and  cruelty.     You  thirst  without  ceasing 


DISTINGUISHED    MARTYRS.  123 

for  the  blood  of  the  saints.  Can  you  be  the  successors  of 
the  holy  apostles,  and  vicars  of  Jesus  Christ  —  you,  who 
despise  Christ  and  his  Word ;  you,  who  act  as  if  you  did  not 
believe  that  there  is  a  God  in  heaven  ;  you,  who  persecute 
unto  the  death  his  faithful  ministers,  make  his  command- 
ments of  no  effect,  and  tyrannize  over  the  consciences  of  his 
saints  ?  Wherefore  I  appeal  from  your  sentence,  and  sum- 
mon you,  cruel  tyrants  and  murderers,  to  answer  before  the 
judgment-seat  of  Christ  at  the  last  day,  where  your  pompous 
titles  and  gorgeous  trappings  will  not  dazzle,  nor  your  guards 
and  torturing  apparatus  terrify  us.  And  in  testimony  of  this, 
take  back  that  which  you  have  given  me.'  '^^  So  saying,  he 
threw  the  torch  which  he  held  in  his  hand  on  the  ground  and 
extinguished  it.  It  will  be  readily  supposed  that  this  with- 
ering invective,  however  it  may  have  appalled  them  at  first, 
made  the  Inquisitors  gnash  upon  Mollio  and  his  companion, 
who  approved  of  the  testimony  which  he  had  borne.  They 
therefore  lost  no  time  in  ordering  them  to  execution.  They 
were  accordingly  conveyed  to  the  place  called  the  Campo 
de  Fiori,  where  they  underwent  death,  with  the  most  pious 
fortitude. 

Pomponio  Algieri,  a  native  of  Nola,  but  at  the  time  of  his 
arrest  a  student  at  the  University  of  Padua,  was  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  all  the  Italian  martyrs.  His  answers 
when  examined  before  the  chief  civil  mao;istrate  of  Padua 


62  Histoire  des  Martyrs,  f.  264,  265.  Gerdesii,  Ital.  Reform,  p.  104  —  quoted  in  Dr. 
McCrie's  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Icaly,  pp.  262,  263.  Zanchi,  in  wriling  to  Bull- 
inger,  says  of  this  Mollio  :  'I  will  relate  what  Mollio  di  Montalcino,  the  monk^ 
who  was  afterwards  burned  at  Rome  for  the  gospel,  once  said  to  me  respecting 
your  book,  De  Origine  Erroris.  As  I  had  not  read  or  seen  the  work  at  that  lime,  he 
exhorted  me  to  purchase  it;  "  and,"  said  he,  "  if  you  have  not  money,  pluck  out  your 
right  eye  to  enable  you  to  buy  it,  and  read  it  with  the  left."  By  the  favor  of  Provi- 
dence, I  soon  after  found  the  book,  whhout  losing  my  eye ;  for  I  bought  it  for  a 
crown,  and  abridged  it  in  such  a  character  as  that  not  even  an  Inquisitor  could  read 
it ;  and  in  such  a  form,  that,  if  he  did  read  it  he  could  not  have  discovered  what 
my  sentiments  were.'    Zanchii  EpistolcE,  lib.  ii.  p.  278. 


124  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE    REFORMATION. 

were  remarkable  for  clear  views  of  truth  on  the  great  points 
at  issue  in  the  controversy  between  the  Protestants  and 
Romanists,  and  contain  an  able  refutation  of  the  errors  held 
by  the  latter.  The  senate  of  Venice  wished  greatly  to  save 
him  ;  but  inasmuch  as  he  utterly  refused  to  abandon  his  sen- 
timents, they  condemned  him  to  the  galleys.  Not  long  after, 
to  please  the  newly  elected  pope,  Paul  IV.,  they  sent  him 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  sentenced  to  be  burned  alive, — 
which  dreadful  death  he  underwent  with  a  magnanimity 
which  made  a  great  impression  on  the  cardinals  and  others 
who  were  spectators  of  the  scene.  He  died  when  in  his 
twenty-fourth  year.  Whilst  he  was  in  prison  in  Venice  he 
wrote  a  letter  to  a  friend  which  describes  the  abundant  con- 
solation by  which  he  was  sustained  and  cheered.  ^ 

Similar  constancy,  supported  by  similar  internal  peace  and 
joy,  was  displayed  by  Francesco  Gamba,  a  native  of  Como, 
who,  having  visited  Geneva,  had  become  acquainted  with  the 
Protestants  there,  and  on  one  occasion  had  partaken  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  with  them.  For  this  he  was  condemned,  upon 
his  return  to  his  native  city,  to  be  burned.  He  resisted  all 
the  attempts  of  priests  and  friars  to  convert  him  from  the 
Protestant  Faith,  and  died  in  the  blessed  assurance  of  hope. 
His  tongue  was  perforated  by  his  enemies,  to  prevent  his  ad- 
dressing the  people  when  he  arrived  at  the  place  of  execu- 
tion. Looking  around  upon  the  vast  assembly,  he  waved  his 
right  hand,  as  a  signal  to  a  friend  whom  he  recognized,  to 
signify  that  his  mind  was  full  of  peace.  After  having  been 
strangled,  his  body  was  committed  to  the  flames. 

Godfredo  Varaglia,  a  native  of  Piedmont,  was  a  dis- 
tinguished preacher  of  the  Order  of  Capuchins.  Li  his 
younger  years  he  was  sent  into  the  valleys  of  the  Waldenses 
to  labor  for  their  conversion  ;  but  he  soon  became  a  convert 

63  This  letter  is  to  be  found  in  Pantaleon's  Rermn  in  Eccles.  Gest.  part.  ii.  app. 
329—332. 


DISTINGUISHED    MARTYRS.  125 

to  their  Faith,  and  began  to  preach  it  with  zeal.  Not  long 
after  the  defection  of  Ochino,  who  belonged,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  to  the  same  Order,  Yaraglia  and  twelve 
others  were  arrested  and  sent  to  Rome.  They  managed, 
however,  to  gain  an  acquital,  but  were  required  to  remain  in 
Rome  five  years.  In  1556,  Varaglia  went  to  France  with 
his  friend  and  patron,  who  was  sent  thither  as  an  ambassador. 
His  conscience  giving  him  no  rest,  he  went  to  Geneva,  and 
openly  professed  the  Protestant  Faith.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards sent  to  preach  the  gospel  among  the  Waldenses  in  the 
Valley  of  Angrogna.  But  he  was  soon  apprehended,  sent 
to  Turin,  and  condemned  to  death,  which  he  endured  with 
great  fortitude,  on  the  29th  of  March,  1558,  in  the  fiftieth 
year  of  his  age. 

Ludovico  Paschali  was  also  a  Piedmontese,  who  imbibed  a 
love  for  the  gospel  at  Nice.  Abandoning  the  army,  he  went 
to  Lausanne  to  prepare  himself  by  study,  to  preach  the  gos- 
pel. He  and  Stefano  Negrino  were  selected  to  visit  the 
Waldenses  in  Calabria,  who  had  solicited  spiritual  teachers 
to  be  sent  to  them  from  the  valleys  in  Piedmont,  and  from 
Switzerland.  They  had  not  been  long  in  Calabria  before 
they  were  both  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  at  Cosenza. 
Negrino  was  allowed  to  perish  of  hunger  in  prison ;  but 
Paschali  was  dragged,  first  to  Naples  and  then  to  Rome.  On 
the  way  to  the  Eternal  City,  and  after  his  arrival  there,  he 
was  treated  in  the  most  barbarous  and  even  brutal  manner. 
His  brother  Bartolomeo,  who  had  come  from  Cuni  with  let- 
ters of  recommendation,  to  endeavor  to  procure  his  liberty 
or  a  mitigation  of  his  sufferings,  found  him  in  a  most  horrible 
state  —  his  head  bare,  and  his  arms  and  hands  lacerated  by 
the  small  cords  with  which  he  was  bound.  No  entreaty 
could  prevail  on  the  Inquisitors  to  place  him  in  circumstances 
of  comfort.  And  yet  he  wrote  to  his  former  hearers  in  Cal- 
abria in  the  following  strain :  '  My  state  is  this ;  I  feel  my 
11* 


126  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

joy  increase  every  day  as  I  approach  nearer  to  the  hour  in 
which  I  shall  be  offered  as  a  sweet-smelling  sacrifice  to  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  my  faithful  Saviour ;  yea,  so  inexpressible 
is  my  joy,  that  I  seem  to  myself  to  be  free  from  captivity, 
and  am  prepared  to  die  for  Christ,  not  only  once,  but  ten 
thousand  times,  if  it  were  possible.  Nevertheless,  I  perse- 
vere in  imploring  the  divine  assistance  by  prayer,  for  I  am 
convinced  that  man  is  a  miserable  creature  when  left  to  him- 
self, and  not  upheld  and  directed  by  God.'  To  his  brother, 
he  said,  shortly  before  his  death :  '  I  give  thanks  to  my  God, 
that,  in  the  midst  of  my  long-continued  and  severe  affliction, 
I  have  found  some  kind  friends ;  and  I  thank  you,  my  dearest 
brother,  for  the  tender  interest  you  have  taken  in  my  welfare. 
But  as  for  me,  God  has  bestowed  on  me  that  knowledge  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  assures  me  that  I  am  not  in 
error,  and  I  know  that  I  must  go  by  the  narrow  way  of  the 
cross,  and  seal  my  testimony  with  my  blood.  I  do  not  dread 
death,  and  still  less  the  loss  of  my  earthly  goods ;  for  I  am 
certain  of  eternal  life  and  a  celestial  inheritance,  and  my 
heart  is  united  to  my  Lord  and  Saviour.'  ^ 

On  the  9th  of  September,  1560,  he  was  strangled  and 
then  burned  in  the  court  of  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  in  the 
presence  of  the  pope  and  the  cardinals,  who  had  assembled 
to  witness  the  spectacle.  Li  a  short  address  which  he  made 
when  brought  to  the  place  of  execution,  he  summoned,  in  the 
most  solemn  manner,  the  pope  and  cardinals  to  'appear 
before  the  throne  of  the  Lamb,  and  give  an  account  of  their 
cruelties.'  ^ 

Perhaps  the  most  illustrious  of  all  the  Italian  martyrs,  for 
natural  talent  and  endowments,  for  noble  person  and  manners, 
and  for  rich  acquirements  and  liberal  accomplishments,  was 

64  Hist,  des  Martyrs,  f.  506—516.     Leger,  Hist,  des  Eglises  Vaudoises,  part  i.  p.  204, 
quoted  in  Dr.  MeCrie's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  266—269. 
Co  Perrin's  History  of  the  Ancient  Christians  inhabitins  the  A^ps,  book  i.  chap.  ix. 


DISTINGUISHED    MARTYRS.  127 

Pietro  Carnesecclii,  a  Florentine  by  birth.  Both  Sadoleti 
and  Bembo  speak  of  him  in  the  highest  terms.  He  was  the 
intimate  friend  of  the  Medici,  and  in  consequence  had  great 
influence  with  Pope  Clement  VII.,  whose  secretary  and 
protonotary  he  was  for  several  years. 

After  the  death  of  his  patron  and  friend,  Carnesecchi 
travelled  much  through  Italy,  visiting  the  learned  and 
greatly  enjoying  their  society.  At  Naples  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Valdes,  and  from  him  imbibed  a  love  for  the 
Reformed  doctrines,  which  was  greatly  augmented  by  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures,  meditation,  and  intercourse  with 
several  learned  men,  who  held  in  reality  some  of  the  most 
important  of  the  new  opinions ;  such,  for  instance,  as  justifi- 
cation by  faith.  He  was  one  of  the  select  party  which  met 
at  Cardinal  Pole's  house  at  Viterbo,  and  spent  the  time  in 
religious  exercises.  This  was  during  the  better  days  of.  that 
distinguished  ecclesiastic.  In  his  '  Letters,'  he  himself  gives 
an  interesting  account  of  these  meetings  for  edification.  ^^ 

After  the  flight  of  Ocliino  and  Martyr,  Carnesecchi  was 
suspected  of  not  only  favoring  heresy  and  its  abettors,  but  of 
holding  it  himself.  He  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome,  and 
underwent  an  examination.  Paul  III.  was,  however,  his 
warm  friend,  and  had  the  matter  accommodated.  But  he 
deemed  it  prudent,  after  this,  to  leave  Italy  for  a  season. 
He  therefore  went  into  Savoy,  and  afterwards  into  France, 
where  he  was  kmdly  and  honorably  received  by  Henry  II., 
and  his  queen,  Catharine  de  Medicis.  In  1552,  he  returned  to 
his  native  country,  strongly  confirmed  in  his  opinions  by  his 
intercourse  wdth  foreign  Protestants,  and  took  up  his  residence 
mainly  at  Padua,  within  the  Venetian  territories. 

Wlien  Paul  IV.  came  to  the  papal  throne,  Carnesecchi 
was  summoned  before  the  furious  pontifi";  but  failing  to  obey 

66  Poli  Epistoles,  vol.  iii.  p.  42. 


128  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

he  was  excommunicated  as  a  contumacious  heretic,  and  de- 
livered over  to  the  secular  power  to  be  punished  as  such. 
But  before  any  thing  was  done,  Pius  IV.  succeeded  to  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter.  Being  a  member  of  the  family  of  the 
Medici,  and  a  friend  to  Carnesecchi,  he  removed  the  sentence 
of  excommunication,  without  exacting  a  recantation  of  any 
of  his  opinions.  But  when  Pius  V..  ascended  the  throne, 
Carnesecchi  felt  his  position  to  be  exceedingly  insecure,  and 
therefore  went  to  Florence,  to  seek  protection  under  the 
shield  of  Cosmo,  then  Duke  of  Tuscany.  But  he  was  be- 
trayed by  him,  and  being  carried  to  Rome,  was  tried,  before 
the  Inquisition,  on  thirty-four  articles,  which  comprehended 
all  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Protestants,  and  condemned 
to  suffer  death.  On  the  3d  of  October,  1567,  he  was  brought 
forth  for  punishment,  and,  being  beheaded,  his  body  was  con- 
sumed by  fire.  He  met  death  with  confidence  and  joy,  and 
went  to  the  execution  as  to  a  triumph. 

The  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  but  pursued  their  usual 
practice,  in  trying  to  defame  Carnesecchi.  Rome  has  never 
been  wilhng  to  speak  well  of  any  whom  she  has  pronounced 
heretics.  But  in  this  case  they  have  had  great  difiiculties  to 
encounter,  for  Carnesecchi  had  become  so  celebrated  for  his 
talents,  his  learning,  and  his  goodness  of  character  before  he 
became  a  Protestant,  that  it  has  been  hard  to  erase  his  name 
from  the  list  of  great  and  good  men  in  Italy.  They  have, 
however,  expunged  it  out  of  almost  every  work  in  which  he 
was  mentioned  with  commendation  before  he  had  sepa- 
rated from  Rome. 

One  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  Reformed  cause  in 
Italy  was  Aonio  Paleario,  or  Antonio  dalla  Paglia,  which 
was  his  original  name.  He  resided  for  some  time  at  Sienna ; 
th«nce  he  removed  at  the  invitation  of  the  senate  to  Lucca, 
where  he  taught  the  Latin  classics  for  ten  years.  From 
Lucca  he  went  to  Milan,  at  the  request  of  the  authorities  of 


DISTINGUISHED    ^lARTTRS.  129 

that  city,  and  spent  seven  years  there  as  professor  of  elo- 
quence, handsomely  supported  and  greatly  honored.  But  in 
the  year  1566,  as  he  was  deliberating  about  removhig  to 
Bologna,  he  feU  a  prey  to  the  violent  persecution  which  broke 
out  at  the  accession  of  Pius  V.,  and  which  was  fatal  to  so 
many  learned  and  excellent  men  in  Italy.  He  was  arrested 
by  Frate  Angelo  de  Cremona,  the  Liquisitor,  and  sent  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  kept  in  close  confinement  during  three 
years.  At  length  he  was  condemned  to  be  hung  and  then 
burned.  And  this  sentence  was  executed  on  the  3d  of  July, 
1570,  when  he  was  in  his  seventieth  year.  That  he  died 
firm  in  the  faith,  and  supported  by  the  blessed  gospel,  is 
made  certain  from  the  testimony  of  the  most  credible  authors 
among  the  Romanists.  ^^ 

It  would  seem  that  the  principal  charges  against  him  were 
four ;  namely,  that  he  denied  purgatory ;  disapproved  the 
burying  of  the  dead  in  churches  ;  ridiculed  the  monastic  hfe ; 
and  ascribed  justification  solely  to  confidence  in  the  mercy  of 
God,  who  will  for  Christ's  sake  forgive  our  sins.  But  it  is 
probable  that  his  intimacy  with  Ochmo,  and  other  leading 
men  who  held  the  Reformed  opinions,  his  defence  of  himself 
before  the  senate  of  Sienna,  and,  above  all,  his  book  on  the 
'  Benefit  of  Christ's  Death,'  *^^  had  much  weight  against  him 
in  the  deliberations  of  liis  judges. 

G7  The  most  important  of  these  is  Laderchius,  in  his  Aniiales  Ecdesice^  torn.  xx.  f. 
205.  The  speech  of  Paleario  before  his  judges,  as  reported  by  this  author,  is  an 
admirable  one,  and  shows  that  he  possessed  the  spirit  of  his  Master. 

68  This  treatise  was  eminently  useful  in  diffusing  evangelical  doctrine  in  Italy  upon 
a  subject  of  vital  importance.  Forty  thousand  copies  were  sold  in  six  years.  It 
is  said  that  Cardinal  Pole  had  a  share  in  writing  it.  Flaminio  wrote  in  defence  of 
it.  And  activity  in  circulating  it,  was  one  of  the  charges  upon  which  Cardinal 
Morone  was  put  in  prison,  and  Carnesecchi  consigned  to  the  flames.  Its  title  was: 
Trattato  utilissimo  del  henejicio  de  Giesii  Christo  crucifisso,  verso  i  Christiani.  Vene- 
tii^  apud  Bernardinuni  de  Bindonis,  Atmo  Do.  1543.  Paleario,  before  he  was  ar- 
rested, had  taken  care  to  place  his  writings  in  the  hands  of  friends  in  whom  he 
could  confide.  They  have  been  often  published  in  Protestant  countries,  and  thus 
have  escaped  the  muiilations  which  those  of  so  many  other  Italian  Protestants  have 
suffered. 


130  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

It  appears  from  Paleario's  published  letters,  that  he  en- 
joyed the  friendship  and  correspondence  of  the  most  cele- 
brated men  of  his  time,  both  in  the  Church  and  the  Republic 
of  Letters.  Among  the  former  were  cardinals  Sadoleti, 
Bembo,  Pole,  Maffei,  Badia,  Filonardi,  Sfondrati;  and, 
among  the  latter,  Flaminio,  Riccio,  Alciati,  Vittorio,  Lam- 
pridio,  and  Buonamici.  His  poem  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  was  received  with  great  approbation  by  the  learned. 
He  was,  indeed,  a  profound  scholar.  His  'Letter  on  the 
Council  of  Trent,'  addressed  to  the  Reformers,  and  his 
*  Testimony  and  Plea  against  the  Roman  Pontiffs,'  are  ad- 
mirable works,  and  evince  profound  knowledge  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  great  soundness  of  judgment. 

Before  leaving  his  cell  for  the  place  of  execution  he  was 
permitted  by  his  attendants  to  write  two  letters,  one  to  his 
wife,  the  other  to  his  two  sons,  Lampridio  and  Fedro.     They 
are  short,  but  affectionate,  and  display  a  mind  sustaine 
pious  fortitude,  and  well  prepared  for  death. 

Several  other  excellent  men  suffered  death  about  the  same 
time ;  among  whom  was  Bartolomeo  Bartoccio,  son  of  a 
wealthy  citizen  of  Castello,  a  city  in  the  Duchy  of  Spoletto. 
He  had  received  some  knowledge  of  the  new  opinions  from 
Fra!3rizio  Tommassi  di  Gubbio,  a  learned  young  gentleman 
who  was  his  companion  at  the  siege  of  Sienna,  in  the  year 
1555.  Upon  his  return  home  he  labored  with  great  zeal  to 
convert  his  relations  to  the  true  Faith.  All  the  efforts  of  his 
friends,  as  well  as  of  his  bishop,  to  reclaim  him  were  in  vain. 
Having  been  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison,  he  made  his 
escape  to  Venice,  and  thence  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  mar- 
ried, and  became  a  manufacturer  of  silk.  Li  the  year  1567, 
whilst  on  a  visit  to  Genoa  on  business,  he  imprudently  gave 
his  true  name  to  a  merchant,  and  was  apprehended  by  the 
Inquisition.  The  governments  of  Geneva  and  Berne  inter- 
posed to  save  him.     But  the  Republic  of  Genoa  sent  him  to 


DISTINGUISHED   MARTTRS.  131 

Rome,  upon  the  requisition  of  the  pope.  After  an  imprison- 
ment of  nearly  two  years,  he  was  condemned  to  be  burned 
alive.  With  a  firm  step  he  went  to  the  place  of  execution  ; 
and  wliilst  the  flames  were  enveloping  his  body,  the  words 
vittoria!  vittoria!  —  victory!  victory ! — were  distinctly  heard 
from  his  dying  lips.  ^^ 

During  the  remainder  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  pris- 
ons of  the  Inquisition  were  filled  with  persons  charged  with 
holding  heretical  opinions.  Some  recanted  and  did  penance, 
others  were  condemned  to  long  imprisonment,  andj  some  to 
worse  sufferings.  Nor  were  they  all  Italians  that  suffered  thus. 
Foreigners  were  frequently  arrested,  and  some  were  even  put 
to  death.  Among  the  number  were  several  Englishmen.  One 
of  w^hom  was  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  afterwards  secretary  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Dr.  Thomas  Reynolds  was  less  fortunate. 
He  died  in  prison  of  the  wounds  which  he  received  by  being 
subject  to  the  torture  called  by  the  Italians,  la  tratta  di  corda, 
and  by  the  Spaniards,  Vastrapado,  in  the  year  1566.  In  the 
year  1595,  an  Englishman  was  burned  alive  at  Rome.  Hav- 
ing indiscreetly  snatched  the  host  from  the  hand  of  the 
priest  who  was  carrying  it  in  the  procession,  his  hand  was 
cut  off  at  the  stake.  Several  other  Englishmen  are  reported 
to  have  been  thrown  into  prison  at  Rome  about  this  time. 

But  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  imprisonment 
and  escape,  was  that  of  John  Craig,  a  Scotchman,  who  was 
born  in  the  year  1512.  '*^  He  went  to  France  in  the  year 
1537,  and  afterwards  into  Italy.  He  entered  a  monastery  at 
Bologna,  and  attained  to  great  consideration  with  his  fellow 
monks.  Having  found  a  book  written  by  Calvin  in  the 
library  of  the  monastery,  he  read  it  with  deep  interest,  and 
became  convinced  that  the  Church  of  Rome  was  not  the  true 

69  Hvitoire  des  Martyrs,  f.  757,  758. 

70  He  early  lost  his  father,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Flodden. 


132  SUPPRESSION    OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

one.  Soon  afterwards  lie  did  not  hesitate  to  impart  bis  con- 
victions to  the  other  monks,  and  for  doing  so,  incurred  immi- 
nent danger  of  losing  his  life ;  and  nothing  but  the  kindness 
of  another  Scotch  monk,  who  furnished  him  the  means  of 
escaping  from  the  monastery,  saved  him.  He  then  entered 
as  a  tutor  into  the  house  of  a  nobleman  in  that  vicinity,  who 
was  favorable  to  the  Eeformed  doctrine.  But  it  was  not 
long  before  both  were  accused  of  heresy,  arrested  by  the 
agents  of  the  Inquisition,  and  conducted  to  Rome.  After 
nine  months  of  cruel  imprisonment  in  a  gloomy  dungeon, 
Craig,  adhering  firmly  to  his  religious  convictions,  was  con- 
demned, with  several  others,  to  be  burned  alive.  The  day 
appointed  for  his  execution  was  the  20th  of  August,  1559. 
But  Pope  Paul  lY.  dying  on  the  18th,  and  a  great  riot  oc- 
curring thereupon,  as  we  have  already  stated,  Craig  and  his 
companions  in  misfortune  escaped  from  prison,  and  left  Rome 
as  quickly  as  possible.  They  were  speedily  pursued  and 
overtaken.  Upon  entering  the  house  where  Craig  was,  the 
captain  of  the  band  of  pursuers  looked  him  earnestly  in  the 
face,  and  then  took  him  aside,  and  asked  him  if  he  did  not 
remember  his  having  once  given  succor  to  a  wounded  soldier 
in  the  environs  of  Bologna  ?  '  No,'  replied  Craig.  ^  But  I 
remember  it,'  said  the  captain.  '  I  am  the  man  to  whom  you 
gave  the  succor.  God  has  given  me  an  opportunity  of  re- 
quiting your  kindness.  You  are  at  liberty.  I  ought  to  arrest 
your  companions ;  but  for  your  sake  I  will  do  them  all  the 
good  I  can.'  So  saying,  he  gave  to  Craig  all  the  money  that 
he  had,  and  also  excellent  advice  respecting  the  means  of 
escape.  Craig  took  leave  of  him  with  a  heart  deeply  touch- 
ed, and  set  out  on  his  way.  In  great  fear  he  pursued  his 
journey  to  the  north.  At  length  he  reached  Vienna,  where 
he  preached  before  the  archduke,  who  afterwards  became 
Emperor  of  Germany,  under  the  title  of  Maximilian  II. 
The  archduke  was  so  much  pleased  with  him,  that  he  entreat- 


DESTRUCTION    OF   BOOKS.  133 

ed  him  to  remain  with  him,  but  the  importunity  of  the  pope 
suffered  it  not ;  he  therefore  sent  him  away,  with  a  safe- 
conduct  or  passport.  ^^ 

Craig  arrived  in  Scotland  in  1560.  An  absence  of  twenty- 
four  years  had  caused  him  almost  entirely  to  forget  his  ma- 
ternal tongue.  At  first  he  preached  in  Latin,  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  knew  that  language.  At  the  end  of  a  short 
time  he  was  able  to  preach  in  English,  and  eventually  he 
became  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  John  Knox's  fellow- 
laborers,  and  lived  to  draw  up  the  National  Covenant,  in 
which  Scotland  solemnly  abjured  the  popish  religion.  ^^ 

XV.     Suppression  and  Destruction  of  Books. 

We  bring  the  account  of  the  suppression  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Italy  to  a  close  by  taking  a  brief  notice  of  the 
measures  which  the  pope  adopted  to  suppress  and  annihilate 
all  books  which  savored  of  heresy.  Those  who  have  not 
informed  themselves  on  this  subject  have  probably  no  con- 
ception of  the  extent  to  which  this  species  of  vandalism  was 
carried. 

That  most  narrow-minded  and  bigoted  monarch,  Charles  V. 
has  the  honor,  or  infamy  rather,  of  being  the  author  of  the 
first  Index  Expurgatorius.  In  the  year  1546,  being  desirous  of 
arresting  the  progress  of  the  new  opinions  in  Flanders,  he 
directed  the  theological  faculty  of  the  University  of  Louvain 
to  draw  up  a  catalogue  of  such  books  as  ought  not  to  be  read 
by  the  people.  Ten  years  later,  this  catalogue  was  by  an 
imperial  decree  much  enlarged.  The  pope  did  something  of 
the  same  sort,  but  only  with  reference  to  his  own  temporal 
dominions. 

71  Hist,  de  VEglise  Chretienne,  par  Barth.    Paris,  1843 ;  pp.  284-t-286. 

72  Life  of  Knox,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  McCrie,  vol.  ii.  p.  55. 

12 


134  SUPPKESSION    OF   THE   KEFOKMATION. 

But  in  1550,  Paul  IV.  resolved  to  frame  a  catalogue  on 
the  most  rigid  principles,  and  make  its  observance  universal. 
This  Index  was  arranged  in  three  divisions.  The  first  con- 
tained the  names  of  authors  whose  whole  works  were  inter- 
dicted. The  second  embraced  the  names  of  those  authors 
some  of  whose  works  only  were  specified  and  forbidden. 
The  third  pointed  out  certain  anonymous  publications  which 
were  unlawful  to  be  read.  To  the  whole  was  added  a  hst  of 
more  than  sixty  printers  whose  pubhcations  were  all  forbid- 
den, no  matter  in  what  language  they  were  printed,  or  what 
subject  they  treated.  This  was  the  origin  and  foundation  of 
the  famous  Index  Expurgatorius,  by  which  Rome  has  striven 
to  reduce  the  world  to  the  darkness  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
condemned  books  were  doomed  to  the  flames ;  and  severe 
penalties  were  decreed  against  those  who  should  neglect  to 
give  them  up. 

The  promulgation  of  this  barbarous  decree  spread  con- 
sternation throughout  Italy;  and  nowhere  more  than  in 
Tuscany,  whose  dukes,  of  the  celebrated  family  of  the  Me- 
dici, had  prided  themselves  on  the  patronage  which  they  had 
afforded  to  literature  and  hterary  men.  Cosmo,  who  then 
occupied  the  ducal  throne,  pleaded  for  some  restrictions  upon 
the  operation  of  the  decree,  in  order  to  prevent  the  devasta- 
tion which  it  threatened.  Venice  temporized ;  and  Milan 
and  Naples  referred  the  matter  to  theii'  lord,  Philip  II.,  who 
was  then  in  Flanders. 

But  notwithstanding  the  reluctance  and  hesitation  mani- 
fested in  certain  quarters,  the  work  of  destroying  heretical 
books  commenced  and  went  bravely  on  in  all  parts  of  Italy. 
All  libraries,  public  and  private,  felt  the  expurgating  process. 
An  immense  number  of  books  were  consumed.  The  trade 
of  the  printers  and  booksellers  was  ruined.  The  disastrous 
effects  were  felt  not  only  at  Venice,  where  so  many  books 


SUPPRESSION    OF   BOOKS.  135 

had  for  a  century  been  published,  but  also  at  Lyons,  at  Ge- 
neva, at  Zurich,  at  Basle,  at  Paris,  at  Leipsic,  and  at  Frank- 
fort on  the  Maine.  Not  only  were  the  books  which  had  been 
written  by  Protestants,  and  by  those  who  were  suspected  of 
favoring  the  new  opinions,  destroyed,  but  even  those  which 
contained  any  notes  or  scholia  written  by  such  persons.  All 
the  works  of  Erasmus,  and  also  the  editions  of  Cyprian,  Je- 
rome, and  Augustine,  which  he  published,  were  condemned, 
because  they  were  polluted  with  his  critical  annotations. 

Upon  the  death  of  Paul  IV.,  a  new  Index  was  published 
by  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  was  more  select  and  discrim- 
inating. It  included  a  great  number  of  Protestant  authors, 
but  it  omitted  some  popish  ones,  whose  sentiments  were  so 
similar  to  those  of  the  Protestants  on  certain  points,  that 
they  had  been  put  into  the  first  Index.  From  this  epoch 
commenced  the  barbarous  practice  of  defacing  and  mutilat- 
ing those  portions  of  certain  works  which  were  considered 
worthy  of  condemnation.  This  was  sometimes  done  by  be- 
smearing the  heretical  page  with  some  black,  adhesive  sub- 
stance, which  rendered  it  illegible.  Sometimes  the  prohibited 
portions  of  a  work  were  covered  with  prints  taken  from 
other  works,  so  as  to  present  a  most  wonderful  appearance. 
Sometimes  the  condemned  pages,  or  parts  of  pages,  were 
wholly  or  partially  torn  out. 

These  measures  led  to  the  destruction  of  a  great  number 
of  books,  and  occasioned  a  vast  public  and  private  loss.  In 
many  cases,  those  who  possessed  proliibited  books  which 
they  wished  to  keep,  buried  them  for  awhile  under  ground, 
or  walled  them  up  in  their  houses,  till  better  times  might 
arrive.  It  has  often  happened  that  in  tearing  down  old 
houses  in  Italy,  valuable  books,  prohibited  in  the  Index,  have 
come  to  light  after  lying  concealed  for  a  long  time.  For 
instance,  in  taking  down  an  old  house  in  Urbino,  in  the  year 


136  SUPPRESSION    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

1728,  a  copy  of  Brucioli's  paraphrases  of  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  was  found  with  some  of  the  writings  of  other  Italian 
Reformers,  which  had  lain  in  concealment  more  than  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half.  ^^ 

73  Dr.  3IcCrie's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy ,  pp.  286—291. 


CHAPTER  V. 

DISPERSION  OF  THE  ITALIAN  PROTESTANTS,  AND  THE 
CHURCHES  OF  THE  SAME  WHICH  WERE  FORMED  IN 
FOREIGN   LANDS. 

Some  account  of  the  dispersion  of  the  Italian  Protestants, 
and  of  the  churches  formed  by  them  in  foreign  lands,  will 
constitute  an  appropriate  sequel  to  what  we  have  said  in  the 
preceding  chapters. 

I.     Italian  Protestant   Churches  in  the   Grisons  and  their 
Dependencies. 

What  is  now  called  the  Canton  of  the  Grisons,  formed  no 
part  of  the  Swiss  confederacy  until  the  year  1788.  Before 
that  time  it  had  a  government  of  its  own,  called  the  Grison 
League,  for  more  than  three  hundred  years.  A  few  words 
respecting  that  country,  its  history,  and  its  dependencies,  may 
not  be  out  of  place  before  we  enter  upon  the  notices  which 
we  purpose  to  give  respecting  the  churches  which  the  Italian 
refugees,  who  had  left  their  country  for  the  sake  of  the  Prot- 
estant religion,  planted  there. 

The  Canton  of  the  Grisons  lies  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Switzerland,  and  was  the  Upper  Rhastia  of  the  ancients.  It 
is  the  largest  canton  in  the  Swiss  confederacy.  It  embraces 
more  than  three  thousand  square  miles,  and  contains  nearly, 
if  not  quite,  eighty  thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  cantons  of  Glarus  and  St.  Gall,  on  the  east 
by  the  Tyrol,  on  the  south  by  Austrian  Italy,  and  the  Canton 
of  Ticino,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Canton  of  Uri.  The  surface 
12* 


138  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

of  the  country  consists  of  high  mountains  separated  by  deep 
valleys.  Some  of  the  mountams  have  an  elevation  of  eleven 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  along  whose  sides 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  at  the  height  of  from  eight 
thousand  two  hundred  to  eight  thousand  four  hundred  feet. 
There  are  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  forty-one  glaciers  in 
these  mountains,  and  fifty-six  cataracts.  The  Inn  and  the 
Rhine  rise  in  this  country,  the  one  running  away  to  the 
northeast,  the  other  almost  due  north.  Into  each  of  these 
flow  many  branches,  great  and  small. 

The  population  is  chiefly  grouped  in  villages,  of  wliich 
there  are  many.  The  most  important  city  is  Coire,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  country,  near  the  Rhine.  But  the  most 
celebrated  place  in  the  entire  canton  is  Disentis,  in  the 
western  part,  on  a  branch  of  the  Rhine,  and  to  the  eastward 
of  Mount  St.  Gothard.  It  is  a  small  place,  but  famous  for 
the  old  Benedictine  monastery  wliich  existed  there,  and 
which,  with  its  literary  treasures  and  buildings,  was  destroyed 
by  the  French,  in  1799.  Ilanz,  in  the  same  valley,  but 
further  down  that  branch  of  the  Rhine,  is  a  considerable 
place,  at  which  the  diet  or  congress  of  the  canton  often  meets. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  which  is  divided  into  two  districts, 
called  Upper  and  Lower  Engadina,  there  is  no  town  of 
much  importance.  The  chief  road  from  tliis  whole  country 
into  Italy  is  that  over  the  Splugen,  celebrated  for  the  sublime 
scenery  through  which  it  passes. 

The  people  of  the  Grisons  are  divided  into  three  leagues : 
the  League  of  God^s  House,  whose  capital  is  Coire;  the 
Grey  League,  of  which  Ilanz  is  the  capital ;  and  the  League 
of  the  Ten  Jurisdictions,  of  which  Davos  is  the  chief  place. 
The  Diet,  composed  of  sixty-three  deputies  from  all  the 
Leagues,  meets  every  year  in  the  month  of  September,  at 
these  three  capitals,  in  rotation ;  deliberates  on  the  affairs  of 
the  canton,  and  decides,  as  a  court  of  ultimate  appeal,  in  legal 


THE    GRISOXS.  139 

cases.  The  canton  sends  sixteen  liundred  men  to  the  army 
of  the  confederacy,  and  contributes  twelve  thousand  guilders 
annually  to  its  support. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  inhabitants  profess  the  Protestant 
religion.  The  pastors  are  generally  very  poor,  and  have  to 
support  themselves  by  their  own  industry.  Very  few  of  them 
are  evangelical  in  doctrine,  at  present,  and  the  state  of  religion 
is  very  low.  The  only  Latin  school  is  at  Coire.  About  ten 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  speak  Italian ;  they  chiefly  live 
in  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  canton. 
More  than  thu^ty  thousand  speak  German ;  and  about  thirty- 
five  thousand  speak  the  Romansh,  or  Ladin,  which  is  a  relic 
of  the  old  Eomana  Rustica.  This  language  is  spoken  chiefly 
in  the  portions  of  the  canton  nearest  to  Italy,  or  the  upper 
valleys. 

The  lowest  point  in  any  of  the  valleys  in  this  canton  is 
three  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet  above  the 
sea ;  and  the  highest  village  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  five 
thousand  six  hundred  feet.  The  variety  of  climate  is,  there- 
fore, very  great  in  the  lowest  and  highest  valleys.  In  the 
latter  the  winters  are  long  —  from  eight  to  nine  months  — 
and  very  dreary. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  secluded  country  raise  grain  in  the 
more  fertile  valleys,  and  feed  cattle  in  the  summer  months  on 
the  alps,  or  grassy  spots  on  the  sides  and  summits  of  the 
mountains.  Their  exports  consist  of  cattle,  cheese,  coals,  and 
rare  minerals ;  for  which  they  receive  grain,  salt,  cloth,  etc. 
A  large  portion  of  their  trade  is  with  Milan,  though  a  portion 
takes  the  direction  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Inn. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Grisons  are  of  mixed  origin.  A 
large  portion  of  them  are  descended  from  the  tribes  found 
there  by  the  Romans.  After  their  conquest  by  that  people, 
a  considerable  element  of  Latin  population  gradually  entered 
into  the  country.     In  the  middle  ages  the  bishops  of  Coire 


140  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS   DISPERSED. 

and  the  monks  of  Disentis  seem  to  have  governed  this  for- 
bidding region.  But  the  people  growing  tired  of  their  des- 
potism and  robbery,  threw  off  the  yoke  in  the  course  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  established  their  present  government, 
in  which  the  principle  of  democracy  is  carried  about  as  far  as 
it  can  be  consistently  with  the  maintenance  of  any  authority 
at  all. 

Not  long  after  the  Grison  republic  had  gained  its  indepen- 
dence, it  obtained  a  large  accession  to  its  territories  by  the 
acquisition  of  the  Valteline,  and  the  counties  of  Chiavenna 
and  Bormio,  which  lie  south  of  the  Grisons,  (from  which 
they  are  separated  by  the  principal,  or  dividing,  range  of  the 
Alps,)  and  between  it  and  the  Milanese  and  Venetian  pos- 
sessions. 

The  Valteline  ^*  is  a  valley  through  which  the  river  Adda 
flows,  from  east  to  west.  Its  length  is  about  fifty  miles,  its 
width  varies  from  ten  to  twenty.  The  upper,  or  eastern  end 
of  it  was,  whilst  it  belonged  to  the  republic  of  the  Grisons, 
called  the  county  of  Bormio.  The  whole  valley  is  beautiful 
and  fertile.  It  contains  twelve  hundred  and  seventy  square 
miles,  and  about  eighty  thousand  inhabitants.  Chiavenna  is 
a  fine  country  bordering  both  banks  of  the  Maira,  a  river 
which  flows  down  from  the  north  into  the  upper  end  of  Lake 
Como,  near  the  place  where  the  Adda  enters  it  from  the  east. 
So  that  whilst  the  Valteline  lies  directly  south,  the  county 
of  Chiavenna  lies  southwest  of  the  Canton  of  the  Grisons. 

We  may  remark,  that,  since  the  year  1797,  the  Valteline, 
and  the  counties  of  Bormio  and  Chiavenna,  are  no  longer 
dependencies  of  the  Grisons,  but  constituent  parts  of  the 
Austrian  possessions  in  Italy.  These  things  premised,  we 
now  proceed  to  say  a  few  words  respecting  the  progress  of 
the  Reformation  in  the  Grison  republic  and  its  dependencies, 
and  the  settlement  of  the  Italian  Protestants  in  its  valleys. 

74  Called  by  the  natives  Vcdle  Tellina,  whence  the  name  Valteline. 


THE    ORISONS.  141 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Grisons  received  their  first  knowl- 
edge of  the  Keformed  doctrine  from  Switzerland.  In  fact, 
Zuingle  had  scarcely  entered  upon  his  work  as  a  Reformer, 
before  he  received  letters  from  Coire,  first  from  a  school- 
master, and  then  from  a  magistrate,  encouraging  him  in  his 
undertaking,  and  telling  him  that  he  had  the  sympathy  of  not 
a  few  persons  in  the  Grisons,  who  were  disgusted  with  the 
simony  and  other  corruptions  which  prevailed  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Nor  was  it  long  before  some  of  the  rays 
of  the  pure  gospel,  which  were  beginning  to  beam  upon 
Zurich,  Berne,  and  other  cantons  in  the  northern  and  western 
parts  of  Switzerland  began  to  penetrate  even  into  the  dark 
republic  of  the  Grisons.  And  verily  the  darkness  which 
covered  that  country  was  like  that  of  Egypt  of  old,  '  a  dark- 
ness that  might  be  felt.'  The  masses  could  not  read.  A 
book  had  never  been  printed  in  the  land.  The  most  of  the 
Catholic  priests  were  ignorant  and  corrupt.  The  hierarchy 
bade  defiance  to  the  civil  authorities.  An  ecclesiastic  could 
seldom  be  punished  for  any  offence.  Indeed,  the  monks  and 
priests  went  armed  through  the  country,  like  a  set  of  military 
knights.  Many  of  both,  and  especially  of  the  latter,  were 
foreigners,  who  were  unacquainted  with  any  one  of  the  three 
languages  —  the  German,  the  Italian,  and  the  Romansh  — 
spoken  in  the  country.  All  they  cared  for  was,  to  enjoy  the 
best  that  the  land  afforded.  As  to  the  instruction  of  the 
people,  many  of  whom  were  little  above  the  brutes  in  point 
of  intelligence,  it  scarcely  seemed  to  enter  their  heads,  as  a 
matter  in  which  they  had  any  interest.  There  were,  indeed, 
honorable  exceptions  to  this  representation,  but  they  were, 
few. 

But  when  the  Reformation  entered  into  the  comitry,  it 
soon  created  a  stir  among  the  ignorant  drones,  who,  as  monks 
and  secular  priests,  infested  the  Church,  and  devoured  the 
substance  of  the  people.     Even  as  early  as  1524,  the  Diet, 


142  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

with  the  view  of  arresting  the  progress  of  the  Reformed  doc- 
trine, enacted  laws  for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy.  Among 
other  statutes  which  were  adopted  at  a  meeting  of  the  Diet  at 
Ilanz,  the  capital  of  the  Grey  League,  was  the  following, 
*  That  the  parish  priests  should  instruct  the  people  according 
to  the  Word  of  God ! '  This  looked  ominous  of  good.  Much 
later  the  Diet  decreed  that  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  should 
recite  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  the  Ten 
Commandments,  for  the  instruction  of  the  people. 

As  the  Reformation  advanced,  the  ignorance,  stupidity,  and 
wickedness  of  the  priests  became  more  manifest  and  strik- 
ing, through  the  contrast  which  the  lives  and  preaching  of 
Protestants  presented  to  the  minds  of  all.  But  our  limits 
will  not  allow  us  to  go  into  details.  It  must  suffice  to  say 
that  the  glorious  cause  of  Truth  steadily  advanced  in  the 
republic  of  the  Grisons,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  pre- 
sented by  the  ignorance  of  the  people,  the  malignity  of  the 
monks  and  the  priests,  and  the  timidity  of  the  government. 
Among  the  men  who  were  prominent  in  the  work  of  reform- 
ing that  country,  were  two,  who  deserve  to  be  had  in  ever- 
lasting remembrance.  They  were  Philip  Salutz  or  Gallitz, 
who  labored  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  and  John  Dorf- 
man  or  Comander,  who  preached  the  gospel  in  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine,  and  was  pastor  of  a  church  at  Coire.  To  these 
we  may  add  John  Frick,  a  priest  of  Mayenfield,  who,  being  a 
most  zealous  Catholic,  and  having  a  great  dread  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformed  doctrine  in  his  country,  went  to  Rome 
to  implore  assistance  from  the  pope,  and  concert  plans  for  the 
extirpation  of  heresy  in  the  Grisons.  But  he  became  so 
much  affected  by  the  irreligion  which  he  saw  at  Rome,  as 
well  as  by  the  ignorance  and  vice  which  prevailed  in  Italy, 
that  he  returned  home  to  join  the  Protestants,  and  labored 
till  his  dying  day,  with  great  zeal  and  success,  to  build  up  the 
faith  which  he  once  endeavored  to  destroy.     In  his  old  age 


THE    ORISONS.  143 

he  used  to  say  to  his  friends,  that  '  he  learned  the  gospel  at 
Rome.' 

Through  various  fortunes  the  cause  of  Truth  passed;  but 
at  length  it  gained  a  permanent  foothold  in  the  Grisons.  '^^ 
Not  only  so,  it  spread  also  in  their  dependencies  of  the  Yalte- 
line,  and  the  counties  of  Bormio  and  Chiavenna.  But  its 
progress  was  slow  in  these ;  for,  being  on  the  immediate  bor- 
ders of  Italy,  and  the  people  all  speaking  the  ItaUan  lan- 
guage, they  were  much  more  subject  to  those  powerful 
influences  which  the  pope  knew  so  well  how  to  wield 
through  the  neighboring  prelates,  especially  the  archbishop 
of  Milan. 

The  Protestant  churches  of  the  Grisons  were  organized 
after  the  manner  of  those  in  Switzerland,  both  as  to  doctrine 
and  government.  In  the  former,  they  sympathized  with 
Zuingle  and  the  other  Swiss  Reformers.  As  to  the  latter, 
each  congregation  had  its  consistory,  or  bench  of  ruhng 
elders.  At  a  later  date,  presbyteries  were  formed ;  and  ul- 
timately a  synod  embraced  all  the  Protestant  churches  and 
ministers  within  the  republic  of  the  Grisons  and  its  depen- 
dencies. The  provision  made  by  the  government  for  the 
support  of  the  ministers  was  small,  and  most  of  them  had  to 
struggle  hard  with  poverty ;  and,  by  the  labor  of  their  hands, 
or  by  teaching  school,  to  eke  out  the  necessary  supplement 
to  their  salaries.  Still,  they  encountered  these  hardships 
cheerfully.     They  labored  not  only  to  advance  the  interests 


75  As  early  as  1526,  the  Reformation  may  be  said  to  have  triumphed  in  the 
Grisons,  for  the  Diet  that  year  passed  a  number  of  ordinances,  which  show  that  the 
Truth  had  conquered  the  country.  The  people  were  allowed  to  choose  their  minis- 
ters, or  priests,  who  were  commanded  to  '  teach  nothing  to  the  people  but  what  is 
contained  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.'  Persons  were  for- 
bidden thenceforth  to  enter  monasteries  and  convents  ;  the  power  of  the  Bishop  of 
Coire  was  restricted  to  a  spiritual  jurisdiction.  The  most  prominent  promoters  of 
the  Reformation,  among  the  laity,  were  John  Guler  and  John  Travers.  The  latter, 
in  his  old  age,  gave  himself  up  very  much  to  preaching.  He  resided  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  Valley  of  the  Inn. 


144  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

of  religion,  but  also  those  of  education.  Schools  sprang  up 
in  all  the  valleys ;  the  printing  press  was  introduced ;  and 
the  Scriptures  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  other  religious  books, 
began  to  be  published. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  when  the  first  Protestant 
exiles  from  Italy  arrived  in  the  Grisons  and  their  dependen- 
cies. As  the  Valteline  and  Chiavenna  were  nearest  to  Italy, 
and  the  people  spoke  Italian,  it  was  natural  that  those  who 
left  the  latter,  for  the  sake  of  religion,  should  fly  thither. 

The  number  of  Italian  Protestants  who  retired  to  the 
Grisons  before  the  year  1542,  was  wholly  insignificant.  Af- 
ter that  epoch,  and  especially  after  1550,  the  number  became 
great.  And  the  current  continued  to  set  in  that  direction  to 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  for  heresy  was  not  entirely 
extirpated  in  Italy,  even  then.  The  gloomy  valleys  of  that 
mountainous  country,  with  its  rude  winters,  contrasted  strange- 
ly with  the  sunny  plains  and  the  vine-clad  hills  of  balmy 
Italy.  But  they  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  persecuted  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  who  had  been  hunted,  like  beasts  of  the 
forest,  in  their  native  land.  And  there  they  could  worship 
and  serve  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  own  con- 
sciences. This,  to  their  eyes,  was  the  greatest  boon  that 
earth  can  give.  They  therefore  hailed  these  rugged  moun- 
tains, with  their  snow-clad  summits,  —  their  glaciers,  their 
frightful  gorges,  and  their  dreadful  climate,  —  with  delight,  as 
furnishing  them  the  repose  wliich  to  their  anxious  minds  and 
weary  bodies  had  so  long  been  denied.  As  to  poverty,  they 
cared  little  for  it.  They  were  ready  to  engage  in  any  labor, 
however  hard,  by  which  they  could  earn  a  livelihood.  They 
carried  with  them  highly  cultivated  minds,  and  also  hands 
that  were  willing  to  work.  They  were  sure  too,  to  meet  with 
brethren,  who,  in  the  midst  of  all  their  poverty,  were  ready 
to  receive  them  with  open  arms.  They  had  forsaken  all  for 
Christ,  but  he  had  not  forsaken  them.     How  then  could  they 


THE    GRISONS.  145 

fail  to  be  happy,  even  amid  the  Alps,  in  the  blessed  security 
which  they  there  found  ?  And  they  were  happy ;  this  their 
letters  abundantly  testify.  They  made  the  valleys  echo  and 
reecho  the  praises  of  Him,  who  had  '  delivered  them  from 
the  jaws  of  the  lion,'  and  brought  them  to  the  refuge  which 
His  own  hand  had  builded  for  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  arrival  of  so  many  excellent  people 
in  the  Grisons  and  their  dependencies,  was  hailed  with  great 
joy  by  the  Protestants  of  those  countries.  Many  of  these 
emigrants  were  persons  of  great  distinction,  whose  names 
had  long  been  familiar  to  the  ears  of  the  well-informed  among 
these  valleys.  The  presence  of  such,  and  indeed  of  all,  who 
had  forsaken  country  and  all  the  endearments  of  home,  for 
the  cause  of  Christ,  tended  greatly  to  confiLrm  those  among 
whom  they  settled,  or  even  sojourned  for  a  season,  in  the 
truth  of  the  glorious  gospel. 

We  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  how  many  persons  left 
Italy  for  the  sake  of  religion  during  the  period  of  which  we 
are  writing.  '  It  was  calculated,'  says  Dr.  McCrie,  in  liis  ad- 
mirable work  on  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  '  that  in  the  year 
1550,  the  exiles  amounted  to  two  hundred,  of  whom  a  fourth 
or  fifth  part  were  men  of  letters,  and  these  not  of  the  mean- 
est name.  Before  the  year  1559,  the  number  had  increased 
to  eight  hundred.  From  that  time  to  the  year  1568,  we 
have  ground  to  believe  that  the  increase  was  fully  as  great  in 
proportion.  And  down  to  the  close  of  the  century,  individu- 
als were  to  be  seen,  after  short  intervals,  flying  to  the  north, 
and  throwing  themselves  on  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps,  to  escape 
the  fires  of  the  Inquisition.  ^^ 

Most  of  the  Italian  Protestants  who  sought  refuge  in  the 
Grisons  and  their  dependencies,  only  remained  there  for  a 

76  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy ^  pp.  291 ,  292.  Vergerio,  Lettere  al  Vescovo  di 
Lesina.    De  Porta,  torn.  ii.  p.  3G,  and  Busdragi,  Epist.  p.  322. 

13 


146  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

season.  Many  went  afterwards  into  the  Protestant  cantons 
of  Switzerland ;  some  went  into  France  and  Germany ;  and 
some  to  the  Netherlands  and  England.  But  several  dis- 
tinguished men  remained  in  the  Grisons,  and  the  districts 
over  which  their  rule  extended,  and  spent  the  greater  part, 
if  not  all,  their  lives  there,  after  quitting  their  native  land. 
About  twenty  Protestant  churches  were  gathered  in  the  Yal- 
teline,  and  the  counties  of  Chiavenna  and  Bormio,  which 
were  all  served  for  a  long  time,  and  most  of  them  till  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  exiles  from  Italy.  Among  those 
who  labored  in  these  countries  at  the  time  of  which  we  write, 
may  be  mentioned  as  the  most  distinguished,  Bartolomeo 
Maturo  (who  was  probably  the  first  of  all  the  Protestant 
Italian  preachers  who  took  refuge  in  the  Alps),  Agostino 
Mainardi,  Giulio  da  Milano,  Beccaria,  Paolo  Gaddio,  Zanchi, 
Scipione  Lentulo,  and  Vergerio,  formerly  Bishop  of  Capo 
d'Istria.  The  latter  was  by  no  means  confined  to  the  country 
south  of  the  Alps.  He  often  made  preaching  tours  into  the 
republic  of  the  Grisons,  and  into  the  Protestant  cantons  of 
Switzerland,  and  even  into  Germany.  The  distinguished 
Ludovico  Castelvetro,  Camillo,  —  a  Sicilian,  commonly  called 
Renato,  after  he  became  a  Protestant,  —  and  Francesco 
Negri,  of  Bassano,  author  of  many  books,  also  spent  most  of 
their  time  in  the  Valteline  and  Chiavenna,  as  did  Francesco 
Stancari,  a  native  of  Mantua,  who  taught  Hebrew  for  a 
season  in  the  former  country. 

The  Protestant  churches  in  the  Yalteline,  and  the  counties 
of  Chiavenna  and  Bormio  were  much  troubled  by  certain 
exiles  who  were  infected  with  the  deadly  error  of  Socinian- 
ism,  and  the  dangerous  ones  of  the  Anabaptists  of  that  day. 
Even  the  churches  in  the  Grison  rej)ublic  itself  were  some- 
what troubled  by  the  favorers  of  these  errors,  particularly 
in  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  in  which  Francesco,  a  Calabrian, 
and  Jeronimo,  a  Mantuan,  labored  for  awhile.     Both  were. 


THE    GRISONS.  147 

however,  expelled  from  the  country  before  the  poison  had 
widely  circulated.  But  in  the  Cisalpine  territories  of  the 
Grison  republic  —  in  the  Valteline,  and  the  districts  of  Chia- 
venna  and  Bormio  —  the  case  was  worse.  There,  certain 
disciples  of  Servetus,  among  whom  we  must  mention  Camillo 
Renato,  Stancari,  and  Negri  (spoken  of  above),  Michael 
Angelo  Florio,  Jeronimo  Turriano,  and  Ludovico  Fieri,  en- 
deavored to  disseminate  the  same  errors.  They  were  aided 
in  this  work  by  the  visits  of  the  noted  antitrinitarians,  Alciati, 
Blandrata,  Camillo  Socino,  and  others,  mostly  laymen  ;  who 
came  to  the  Grisons,  some  from  Italy  and  the  others  from 
Switzerland.  But  the  proceedings  of  the  synod  in  the  year 
1571,  were  such,  that  some  of  those  who  had  been  enveigled 
in  these  heresies  were  ultimately  recovered,  and  the  others 
withdrew  from  the  Grisons.  After  this,  the  country  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  disturbed  again  with  these  controver- 
sies. 

But  the  churches  in  the  Cisalpine  provinces  of  the  Grisons 
had  not  only  to  suiFer  severe  trials  from  within ;  they  were 
exposed  to  imminent  danger  from  without.  Rome  had  re- 
solved to  leave  no  measure  untried  by  which  their  extirpation 
might  be  effected.  As  this  was  not  likely  to  be  done  by  moral 
means,  she  determined  to  resort  to  physical  force.  For  this 
purpose  she  exerted  herself  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the 
neighboring  Catholic  powers,  especially  that  of  Philip  II., 
King  of  Spain,  who  had  lately  obtained  the  sovereignty  of 
Milan.  This  bigoted  prince  was  ready  enough  to  enter  into 
his  Holiness'  views.  Of  this  he  gave  proof  in  the  erection 
of  a  number  of  fortresses  on  the  Milanese  frontier  along  the 
Valteline  border.  These  fortresses  gave  protection  to  the 
Inquisitors  and  their  myrmidons,  who,  sallying  forth  from 
these  lurking-places,  entered  the  Valteline,  and,  seizing  such 
persons  as  they  deemed  guilty  of  heresy,  wherever  they 
found  them  unprotected  and  unable  to  defend  themselves, 


148  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

carried  them  into  their  dens  —  there  to  undergo  summary 
punishment,  or  to  be  transferred  to  Rome,  to  await  a  no  less 
dreadful  doom.  We  bhish  to  record,  that  the  iUustrious 
Charles  Borromeo,  ^''  Archbishop  of  Milan,  and  a  cardinal,  so 
celebrated  for  his  intelligence  and  the  decorum  of  his  private 
life,  was  deeply  involved  in  this  iniquitous  plot  for  uprooting 
and  destroying  the  Protestant  churches  in  the  Cisalpine  prov- 
inces of  the  Grisons  by  measures  which  partook  more  of  the 
nature  of  brigandage  than  any  thing  else.  The  consequences 
were  what  might  have  been  foreseen.  The  government  of 
the  Grisons  not  having  the  energy  to  repress  these  acts  of 
violence  at  the  outset,  things  went  on  from  bad  to  worse,  until 
intestine  violence  stalked  with  impunity  throughout  these 
once  happy  and  prosperous  valleys,  and  destroyed  alike  the 
peace  and  safety  of  individuals  and  of  society.  This  state  of 
things  continued  until  the  awful  catastrophe  of  1 620,  namely, 
the  indiscriminate  and  barbarous  slaughter  of  the  Protestants 
in  the  Yalteline,  the  revolt  of  the  Cisalpine  dependencies  of 
the  republic,  and  the  temporary  subjugation  of  all  the  coun- 
try of  the  Grisons  by  the  armies  of  Spain  and  Austria. 

From  that  memorable  epoch,  Protestantism  may  be  said 
to  have  become  extinct  in  the  southern  dependencies  of  the 
Grisons.  Not  so,  however,  in  the  republic  itself.  There  the 
E-eformed  doctrine  has  not  ceased  to  maintain  its  foothold. 


77  Few  men  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  have,  in  any  age,  attained  so  great  a 
celebrity  as  Cardinal  Borromeo.  A  man  of  unimpeachable  private  life,  possessing 
distinguished  talents,  and  a  most  benevolent  heart,  it  is  almost  inconceivable  that 
he  should  have  lent  his  sanction  to  measures  more  worthy  of  a  robber  than  of  a 
Christian  prelate.  But  the  fact  is,  that  one  great,  absorbing  desire'  regulated  all 
that  he  did  —  that  of  advancing  the  interests  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  And 
to  such  a  degree  was  he  under  the  influence  of  this  principle  of  action,  that  it  often 
blinded  his  eyes  as  to  the  true  moral  qualities  of  human  conduct.  All  his  laudable 
efforts  to  reform  the  manners  of  his  clergy,  to  educate  the  children  of  the  poor  in 
w^hat  have  been  called  his  '  Sunday  schools,'  and  to  train  up  able  and  skilful  theo- 
logians, had  their  origin  and  impulse  in  the  desire  to  exalt  not  so  much  the  Tncth, 
as  the  Church  of  Rome  ! 


i 


CHURCHES    IN    SWITZERLAND.  149 

And  there  tlie  Protestant  portion  of  the  population  forms,  at 
this  moment,  about  two  thirds  of  the  whole. 

II.     Protestant  Italian   Churches  in  Switzerland. 

1.  At  Zurich.  The  senate  of  Zurich  gave  up  to  the 
Italian  exiles  who  came  to  that  city  —  chiefly  from  Locarno 
—  the  use  of  a  church,  in  which  they  celebrated  Divine  wor- 
ship in  their  own  language.  For  a  time,  Beccaria  officiated 
as  their  pastor.  But  he  left  them  after  a  few  months  and 
returned  to  the  Grisons,  where  he  labored  among  the  poor 
and  ignorant  population  of  the  valley  of  Misocco,  until  driven 
thence  by  the  agency  of  Cardinal  Borromeo ;  after  which, 
he  retiredto  Chiavenna. 

Beccaria  was  succeeded  in  the  church  of  the  Locarnese 
exiles  at  Zurich  by  Ochino,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken 
at  length  in  another  place.  Ochino,  after  quitting  Italy 
first  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  spent  some  time  with  Calvin ; 
but  as  there  were  few  of  his  countrymen  there  at  that  time, 
to  whom  he  might  preach,  he  went  to  Basle,  to  superintend 
the  printing  of  some  of  the  productions  of  his  pen.  Thence 
he  went  to  Augsburg,  in  Germany,  where  he  preached  in 
Italian  in  one  of  the  churches  in  that  city,  at  the  municipal 
expense,  for  the  benefit  of  the  merchants,  many  of  whom 
understood  Italian.  But  the  approach  of  Charles  V.,  with 
his  army,  in  the  year  1547,  caused  him  to  leave  that  place. 
We  next  hear  of  him  at  Basle,  where  he  met  his  friend 
Martyr,  who,  with  several  others  had  arrived  from  Italy, 
With  him  he  went  over  to  England,  upon  the  invitation  of 
Cranmer,  and  remained  there  from  1547  to  1554.  Whilst 
Martyr  occupied  the  chair  of  Divinity  in  Oxford,  Ochino 
was  employed  in  preaching  in  London.  But  upon  the 
death  of  Edward  YL,  and  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
in  1554,  they  both  returned  to  the  continent  —  Martyr  to 
Strasburg  and  Ochino  to  Basle.  The  year  following,  Ochino 
13* 


150  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

was  called  to  Zurich,  to  be  the  pastor  of  the  Locarnese  church. 
That  post  he  held  eight  or  nine  years. 

Soon  after  the  installation  of  Ochino  at  Zurich,  Martyr 
was  called  to  be  professor  of  theology  and  Hebrew  in  the 
University  of  that  city.  This  office  he  filled  till  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  the  year  15C2.  His  residence  at  Zurich 
was  a  great  blessing  to  the  Italian  church  and  congregation. 
He  often  preached  to  them,  either  to  relieve  his  friend  Ochino, 
now  advanced  in  life,  or  to  fill  his  place  when  he  was  absent. 
His  death  was  felt  to  be  a  great  loss,  not  only  to  the  Italian 
Protestants  dispersed  throughout  Switzerland,  but  to  the 
Protestant  cause  in  general ;  for  he  stood  high  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  churches  throughout  Protestant  Christendom,  and 
his  writings  were,  by  general  consent,  placed  next  to  those 
of  Calvin. '' 

In  the  same  year  with  Martyr,  died  Lelius  Socinus,  his 
countryman,  who  had  resided  at  Zurich  much  of  his  time 
since  he  left  Sienna,  in  Italy.  Though  many  doubts  were 
entertained  concerning  the  soundness  of  the  sentiments  of 
this  man  on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  Divinity  and 
proper  work  of  Jesus  Christ,  he  never,  when  interrogated, 
admitted  that  he  held  opinions  different  from  those  of  Bul- 
linger.  Martyr,  and  the  other  Reformers.  But  after  his 
death,  his  antitrinitarian  friends,  and  especially  his  brothers, 
and  his  more  celebrated  nephew,  Faustus  Socinus,  who  was 
at  that  epoch  residing  at  Lyons,  proclaimed  that  he  was  of 
their  sentiments,  and  in  proof  of  the  fact,  published  extracts 
from  his  writings,  as  they  affirmed.  But,  to  the  day  of  his 
death,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  remained  a  member 


78  During  his  residence  in  England,  Martyr  lost  liis  wife,  who  was  buried  at 
Oxford.  On  the  restoration  of  Popery,  under  Queen  Mary,  Cardinal  Pole,  once 
his  intimate  friend,  gave  orders  that  her  body  should  be  disinterred  and  cast  into 
a  dunghill !  After  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  it  was  removed,  under  the 
direction  of  Archbishop  Parker,  and  honorably  buried  again. 


CHURCHES    IN    SWITZERLAND.  151 

of  the  Italian  Protestant  church  at  Zurich,  whose  creed  was 
wholly  evangelical. 

Not  long  after  the  death  of  Martyr,  it  became  manifest  to 
all  that  Ochino  had  also  imbibed  antitrinitarian  sentiments. 
This  had  long  been  suspected.  But  now  there  was  no  deny- 
ing the  fact ;  for  some  publications  which  he  issued  about  this 
time,  partly  in  the  way  of  setting  forth  his  opinions,  and 
partly  in  the  way  of  defending  them,  removed  all  doubt. 
He  was  dismissed  from  his  charge,  and,  what  can  never  be 
justified,  he  was  banished  from  Zurich.  At  the  age  of  sev- 
enty-six, accompanied  by  his  four  little  children,  he  set  out 
in  the  depth  of  winter.  He  went  first  to  Basle,  and  after- 
wards into  IMoravia,  in  Germany,  and  died  at  Slacovia,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  15  G4,  after  having  lost  two  sons 
and  a  daughter  by  the  plague,  which  was  then  raging  in  that 
country.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  errors  into  which 
the  venerable  man  may  have  fallen,  one  cannot  read  the  de- 
tails of  his  last  days  without  deeply  deploring  the  want  of 
better  views  on  the  subject  of  religious  liberty  than  existed 
eitlier  in  Catholic  or  Protestant  countries  at  that  period. 

After  Ochino,  the  Locarnese  church  at  Zurich  continued 
to  have  a  succession  of  excellent  pastors  until  the  emigration 
from  Italy  to  that  city  ceased,  and  there  was  no  longer  need 
of  an  Italian  church  there.  But  though  the  Italian  church 
and  the  Italian  language  disappeared  in  the  lapse  of  time  at 
Zurich,  it  is  certain  that  some  of  the  very  best  families  there 
are  descended  from  these  Italian  exiles.  Nor  has  that  city 
been  slightly  indebted  to  them  for  the  prosperity  which  it 
has  enjoyed.  For  they  introduced  into  it  the  art  of  manu- 
facturing silk,  set  up  mills  and  dye-houses,  and  contributed 
greatly  by  their  skill  and  industry  to  augment  its  commerce 
and  its  wealth. 

2.  At  Basle.     This  city  had  long  been  distinguished  as  a 


152  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

resort  of  learned  men ;  "^^  a  fact  which  induced  many  of  the 
Italian  Protestants  to  choose  it  as  the  place  of  their  residence ; 
among  whom  we  may  mention  Paolo  di  Colli,  a  celebrated 
lawyer,  from  Alexandria,  in  the  Duchy  of  Milan;  Guglielmo 
Grataroli,  a  physician  of  Bergamo;  Alfonso  Corrado,  of 
Mantua,  and  author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse; 
Silvestro  Teglio,  and  Francesco  Betti,  a  Roman  knight,  both 
learned  men ;  Mino  Celso,  a  native  of  Sienna,  a  literary  man ; 
Petrus  Perna,  a  printer  from  Lucca,  who  was  eminently  useful 
to  the  Protestant  cause :  and  Celio  Secundo  Curio,  of  whose 
escape  from  Italy  we  have  given  a  fidl  account  in  another  place. 

At  his  arrival  in  Switzerland,  the  Senate  of  Berne  placed 
Curio  at  the  head  of  the  College  of  Lausanne.  From  that 
post  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  Roman  eloquence,  in 
the  University  of  Basle.  To  that  city  great  numbers  of 
young  men  flocked  to  hear  him.  And  soon  he  received 
pressing  invitations  from  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  King 
of  Transylvania,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  to  fill  chairs  in 
Universities  in  their  respective  dominions.  Even  the  pope, 
through  his  legate,  the  Bishop  of  Terracina,  made  him  the 
most  liberal  offers  to  induce  him  to  return  to  Italy.  But  he 
rejected  all  these  offers,  and  remained  at  Basle  till  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  the  year  1569.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  works,  not  only  on  the  subject  of  religion,  but  on 
grammar  and  criticism.  His  editions  of  the  Latin  classics, 
accompanied  with  notes,  did  great  service  to  Roman  litera- 
ture and  education. 

Of  all  the  men  who  left  Italy,  for  the  sake  of  the  Protest- 
ant religion,  the  loss  of  Curio  was  the  most  regretted  in  that 
country.  This  is  a  very  important  circumstance,  for  it  is  to 
his  pen  that  we  are  indebted  for  many  of  the  facts  relating 
to  the  rise,  progress,  and  suppression  of  the   Reformation  in 

79  Among  whom  was  the  celebrated  Erasmus,  who  spent  many  of  his  latter  years 
in  that  city,  and  died  there. 


CHURCHES    IN    SWITZERLAND.  153 

Italy.  And  most  of  the  narratives  of  the  Italian  martyrs 
either  came  from  his  pen,  or  were  submitted  to  his  revision, 
before  they  were  published.  ^  He  left  several  children,  who 
were  distinguished  for  their  talents  and  learning ;  and  among 
his  descendants  are  to  be  found  some  of  the  most  eminent 
names  in  the  Protestant  church,  such  as  the  Buxtorfs,  Gry- 
ngeus,  Freyus,  and  Werenfels.  ^^ 

There  were  a  few  Italian  refugees,  we  believe,  in  the  city 
of  Berne  and  at  Lausanne,  and  other  places  in  what  is  now 
the  Canton  of  Vaud,  but  what  was  then  a  part  of  the  Bern- 
ese territories ;  but  the  number  was  inconsiderable. 

III.     Italian   Church  at   Geneva. 

At  the  time  of  which  we  write,  Geneva  formed  no  part  of 
the  Swiss  confederacy.  That  city  had  long  been  one  of  the 
Imperial  free  cities  before  the  Reformation.  TTlien  she 
embraced  the  Reformed  opinions,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  deter- 
mined, for  the  double  object  of  destroying  heresy  and  of  aug- 
menting his  own  dominions  by  such  an  important  acquisition, 
to  gain  possession  of  her  by  force.  But  the  Bernese  having 
embraced  the  Reformed  religion,  would  not  permit  this,  and 
more  than  once  sent  their  armies  and  drove  away  the  Savoy- 
ards from  the  walls  of  Geneva.  After  the  Reformation,  she 
remained  till  the  year  1798  an  independent  city,  having 
scarcely  any  territory  beyond  her  walls.  In  that  year  the 
French  Republic  overran,  by  her  armies,  and  conquered  all 
the  French,  or  southwestern  part  of  Switzerland,  and  added 
it  to  France.  Geneva  became  the  capital  of  the  Department 
du  Leman,  and  remained  such  till  1814.  In  that  year  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  restored  the  former  state  of  things  in 
Switzerland,  gave  to  Geneva  some  territories  around  her  to 

80  By  his  friend,  Pantaleon. 

81  Dr.  McCrie'a  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  358, 359.  Tempe  Helvetica^ 
torn.  vi.  p.  47. 


154  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

the  distance  of  a  few  miles,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to 
Savoy  on  the  south,  and  France  on  the  north,  in  compensa- 
tion for  some  estates  which  she  had  held  in  both  those  coun- 
tries as  properties  belonging  to  ancient  convents  of  the  city. 
This  augmented  the  population  and  importance  of  the  Gen- 
evan republic  very  much.  ^  The  Congress  of  Vienna  at- 
tached the  repubhc  of  Geneva,  thus  enlarged  into  a  canton, 
to  the  Swiss  confederacy,  of  which  she  is  now  a  constituent 
member. 

But  to  return  to  the  time  of  which  we  are  writing.  Gen- 
eva was  at  that  period  an  independent  city,  acknowledging  no 
subjection  to  any  other  power  in  the  world,  and  found  her 
greatest  security  in  her  feebleness,  if  we  may  so  sj^eak ;  for 
she  had  scarcely  a  population  of  more  than  fifteen  thousand 
souls.  She  was,  however,  wholly  Protestant,  a  Roman 
Catholic  not  being  allowed  to  be  a  citizen,  or  even  to  remain 
beyond  a  certain  length  of  time  within  the  gates. 

As  early  as  1542,  a  congregation  of  Italian  refugees  was 
formed  at  Geneva,  and  was  under  the  pastoral  inspection  of 
Bernardino  de  Sesvaz,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  none 
other  than  Bernardino  Ochino,  who  assumed,  it  is  conjectured, 
that  appellation  for  the  purpose  of  concealment  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  exile.  Its  meetings,  however,  were  soon  after- 
wards discontinued,  probably  because  of  the  smallness  of  the 
number  of  exiles  who  had  then  arrived. 

But  in  the  year  1551,  the  Italian  service  was  recommenced, 
and  continued  till  the  end  of  the  century.  The  principal 
person  who  was  active  in  its  reestablishment  was  the  cele- 
brated Galeazzo  Caraccioli,  of  whom  we  have  made  mention 
in  speaking  of  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Naples. 
This  distinguished  man,  of  noble  family  —  being  the  son  of 
the  Marquis  of  Vico,  and  connected  with  some  of  the  most 

82  It  was  in  this  way  that  Geneva  received  her  Catholic  population,  which  is 
now  24,000,  whilst  the  Protestant  is  36,000. 


ITALIAN    CHURCH   IN    GENEYA.  155 

elevated  families  in  Italy,  ^  —  was  highly  esteemed  by  the 
people  of  Geneva,  and  was  admitted  to  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  a  citizen,  and  made  a  member  of  the  highest 
councils  of  the  republic.  And  well  did  he  show,  in  all  his 
subsequent  life,  that  he  was  worthy  of  the  confidence  reposed 
in  him.  Twice  did  he  visit  Italy  to  meet  his  aged  father,  and 
twice  also  to  meet  his  wife,  who  disappointed  him  by  the  ad- 
vice of  her  confessor,  but  whom  he  saw  by  going  boldly  to 
the  gate  of  his  father's  castle  at  Yico.  On  that  occasion  he 
passed  several  days  surrounded  by  his  family  —  father,  wife, 
and  children.  But  all  their  endeavors  to  j^ersuade  him  to 
return  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were  in  vain ;  and  vain 
too,  were  his  efforts  to  induce  his  wife  to  go  with  him  to 
Geneva.  The  scene  of  final  parting  was  heart-rending.  His 
wife  hung  about  his  neck,  and  his  children,  and  especially  a 
lovely  daughter  of  thirteen  years,  clasped  his  knees,  so  that, 
overwhelmned  with  sorrow,  he  had  literally  to  shake  them 
from  him.  For  years  the  scene  haunted  his  imagination  day 
and  night.  But  he  could  not  abandon  Christ,  even  for  the 
dearest  earthly  friends.  Nor  did  Christ  abandon  him.  After 
he  had  remained  nine  years  in  exile,  and  his  former  marriage 
had  been  annulled  by  the  government  of  Geneva,  on  the 
ground  of  his  wife's  refusing  to  live  with  him,  he  married  the 
widow  of  a  French  refugee.  In  doing  this,  he  had  the  appro- 
bation of  Calvin  and  all  the  leading  Reformers  in  Switzerland. 
Caraccioli  never  entered  the  ministry,  but  he  consented 
to  fill  the  office  of  ruling  elder  in  the  Protestant  Italian 
Church.  Lattantio  Ragnoni,  from  Sienna,  was  chosen  pastor. 
He  was  a  faithful  minister  of  the  gospel.  In  the  year  1553, 
Celso  Massimiliano  was  chosen  as  a  second  pastor.     He  was  a 

83  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Cardinal  Carafta,  afterwards  Pope  Paul  IV.,  and 
his  wife  was  Vittoria,  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Nunceria,  who  brought  him  a 
large  fortune  and  bore  him  six  children.  From  all  these  he  had  lo  tear  himself 
away,  when  he  determined  openly  to  follow  Christ. 


156  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

man  of  distinguished  talents,  and  was  usually  called  Martin- 
engo,  because  he  was  the  son  of  a  count  of  that  name,  in  the 
territories  of  Brescia.  He  died  in  1557,  and  two  years  later 
was  succeeded  by  Nicola  Balbani,  who  served  the  church  till 
near  the  end  of  that  century.  The  church  flourished  unin- 
terruptedly, excepting  during  a  short  period  when  Alciati 
and  Blandrata,  of  whom  we  have  spoken  when  treating  of 
the  Italian  churches  in  the  Grisons,  aided  by  Valentinus 
Gentilis,  and  Gribaldo,  a  lawyer,  endeavored  to  disseminate 
antitrinitarian  sentiments  among  the  members.  A  Confession 
of  Faith  was  drawn  up  in  1558,  by  Calvin,  for  the  church, 
after  whose  adoption  the  difficulty  soon  ceased. 

Almost  every  year,  for  a  long  period,  the  Italian  congrega- 
tion was  augmented  by  the  annual  arrival  of  Protestant  ref- 
ugees from  Italy.  They  were  received  by  all  classes  of  the 
Genevese  with  the  greatest  kindness.  Nor  had  the  city  ever 
occasion  to  regret  that  she  opened  her  gates  to  them.  Among 
those  who  have  served  her  most  honorably  in  the  senate,  in 
the  academy,  and  in  the  field,  from  that  time  to  the  present, 
are  to  be  found  Italian  refugees  and  their  descendants.  No 
names  have  been  more  illustrious  in  that  commonwealth,  than 
the  Diodati, ''*^  Turretini,^  Calandrini,  Burlamachi,^  Micheli, 
Minutoli,  Butini,  and  Offredi. 

84  Of  the  Diodati,  the  most  celebrated  was  Giovanni,  or  John,  who  was  born  at 
Lucca  about  the  year  15S9,  of  a  noble  Catholic  family  ;  but  embracing  the  Protest- 
ant religion,  he  retired  to  Geneva,  where  such  was  the  proficiency  which  he  made  in 
learning,  that  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He  was 
deputed  with  his  colleague.  Professor  Tronchin,  to  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  was  one 
of  the  six  men  who  drew  up  its  canons.  He  was  the  author  of  many  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  was  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Italian,  which  he  exe- 
cuted in  a  masterly  manner.     He  died  at  Geneva,  in  the  year  1649. 

85  The  most  distinguished  of  the  Turretini  were  Benedict,  Francis,  and  John  Al- 
phonsus,  -  father,  son,  and  grandson,  —  all  of  whom  were  born  at  Geneva,  and  all 
were  professors  in  the  Academy;  the  two  former,  of  Theology,  and  the  latter  —  who 
was  not  equal  to  the  others  in  soundness  of  doctrine  —  of  Ecclesiastical  History. 
He  died  in  the  year  1737.     His  father  died  in  16S7, 

86  The  Buriamachi  were  from  Lucca,  where  one  of  that  name  attempted,  as  has 
been  stated,  to  set  on  foot  a  revolution,  which  should  deliver  Italy  from  the  tyrants 


ITALIAN    CHURCH   IN    GENEVA.  157 

Persecution  in  Spain  drove  many  of  those  who  had  em- 
braced the  new  doctrines  from  that  country,  some  of  whom 
took  refuge  in  Geneva.  The  archives  of  that  city  contain 
a  record  of  this  nature,  of  the  date  of  October  14th,  1557  :  — 
'  Received  the  same  morning,  300  inhabitants,  namely,  200 
French,  50  English,  25  Italians,  4  Spanish,  etc.,  insomuch 
that  the  antechamber  of  the  Council  could  not  contain  them 
alL'  The  same  privileges  were  extended  to  the  Spanish  as 
to  the  Italian  exiles  ;  and  Juan  Perez  ^  formed  a  congrega- 
tion of  them,  and  officiated  as  their  pastor  for  awhile.  After 
his  departure  for  France,  De  Reyna  and  others  preached  the 
gospel  to  this  little  flock  of  Protestant  Spaniards.  But,  as 
many  of  its  members  removed  to  England  and  other  parts, 
and  as  most  of  those  who  remained  at  Geneva  understood 
Italian,  in  process  of  time,  they  relinquished  their  Spanish 
service  and  attached  themselves  to  the  Italian  church,  of 
which  Balbani  was  pastor.  ^ 

that  oppressed  her.  Several  persons  of  this  name  rose  to  distinction  at  Geneva, 
among  whom  we  may  mention  Fabricius,  called  by  Bayle,  '  the  Photius  of  his  age,' 
who  was  minister  of  the  Italian  church  there.  Another  was  John  James  Burlamac- 
chi,  professor  of  law,  and  author  of  a  celebrated  treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nations. 

87  Juan  Perez  was  born  in  Andalusia.  In  1527  he  was  sent  to  Rome  as  Charg6 
d'Affaires  for  Charles  V.  Subsequently  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  College  of 
Doctrine  at  Seville,  where  he  became  intimate  with  Egidio,  and  learned  from  him 
the  Evangelical  doctrine.  When  that  excellent  man  was  thrown  into  prison,  Perez 
left  Spain  and  went  to  Geneva.  Being  called  from  that  city  to  Biois,  he  officiated 
there  some  time  as  a  preacher.  After  that,  he  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  Duchess 
Renee,  at  the  chateau  of  Montargis,  and  died  at  Paris.  He  bequeathed  all  his  for- 
tune to  the  printing  of  the  Bible  in  his  native  tongue.  He  had  commenced  the 
translation,  but  was  compelled  to  leave  it  unfinished  in  the  hands  of  Cassiodoro  de 
Reyna,  who  completed  it  ten  years  afterwards.  It  was  published  at  Basle,  in  the 
year  1569.  Perez  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Spanish  some  years  before 
his  death,  and  also  the  Book  of  Psalms.  His  Catechism  and  Summary  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  appeared  about  the  same  time. 

88  Dr.  McCrie's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain,  pp.  259—269.  One  of  the 
most  distinguished  Spanish  Protestants  who  came  to  Geneva  was  Pedro  Gales,  who 
arrived  there  in  the  year  15S0.  Whilst  teaching  Greek  and  Jurisprudence  in  Italy, 
he  fell  under  the  suspicion  of  heresy,  and  was  subjected  to  the  torture,  by  which  he 
lost  one  of  his  eyes.    Escaping  from  prison,  he  came  to  Genera,  and  was  appoint- 

14 


158  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

IV.     The  Italian  Exiles  in  France, 

A\niilst  some  of  tlie  Protestants  from  Italy  took  refuge  in 
several  other  cities  in  France,  the  greater  part  of  them 
went  to  Lyons,  which  was,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  a  place 
of  great  resort  for  merchants  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  So 
numerous  were  the  Italian  Protestants  in  that  city  that  the 
pope's  solicitude  was  not  a  little  awakened,  and  he  sent  mis- 
sionaries to  labor  for  their  recovery  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  But  all  his  efforts  were  vain.  In  the  beginning 
of  15G2,  the  Italians  obtained  permission  to  hold  meetings 
for  public  worship.  It  was  their  desire  to  have  the  cele- 
brated Zanchi  for  their  pastor ;  but  his  duties  elsewhere  pre- 
vented his  acceptance  of  their  invitation. 

Several  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  and  other  religious 
books,  in  the  Italian  language  issued  from  the  press  at  Lyons. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  many  of  the  Spanish  Protest- 
ants repaired  to  the  city  of  Lyons,  where  they  united  with 
their  Italian  brethren.  They  were  received  with  much 
kindness  by  the  French  Protestants,  who  sympathized  greatly 
with  them,  shared  with  them  the  religious  liberty  which  they 
enjoyed  at  that  time,  and  admitted  several  of  their  ministers 
to  be  pastors  in  their  churches.  Some  converted  Moors  who 
had  escaped,  with  the  Protestants,  from  the  clutches  of  the 
Inquisition  of  Spain,  were  also  received  with  great  kind- 
ness. ^^ 


ed  joint  professor  of  philosophy  with  Giulio  Paci,  an  eminent  Italian  jurist.  He  was 
afterwards,  during  a  temporary  suspension  of  the  exercises  of  the  Academy,  owing 
to  the  attempts  upon  Geneva  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  invited  to  Bordeaux  to  become 
rector  of  the  College  of  Guienne.  Not  being  contented  with  his  situation  there,  he 
set  out  for  the  Netherlands.  On  his  way  he  was  seized  by  some  partisans  of  the 
League,  and  delivered  to  the  Spaniards,  and  by  them  to  the  Inquisition,  by  whose 
sentence  he  was  consigned  to  the  flames.  He  met  death  with  courage  and  hope  in 
God.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning. 
89  Dr.  McCrie's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain,  pp.  25S,  259. 


ITALIAN    EXILES    IN    GERMANY.  159 

V.     The  Italian  Exiles  in   Germany, 

Several  of  the  Protestant  Italians  who  left  their  country 
for  their  religion,  ultimately  arrived  in  the  south  part  of  Ger- 
many. The  greater  number  went  to  Strasburg,  which  open- 
ed its  gates  with  alacrity  to  receive  them.  Strasburg  was, 
during  that  period,  a  city  of  Germany  and  not  of  France, 
Alsace  not  having  been  then  conquered  by  the  latter. 

Among  the  distinguished  exiles  from  Italy  who  went  to 
that  city,  and  remained  there  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  were 
Paolo  Lacisio,  of  Verona,  famous  as  a  linguist;  Jeronimo 
Massario,  of  Vicenza,  who  became  a  professor  of  medicine  in 
the  University  ;  Martyr,  who  twice  sojourned  there  for  a  few 
months,  and  Jerome  Zanchi,  who  resided  there  several  years 
as  professor  of  divinity,  and  preached  to  the  Italian  Protest- 
ants, who  held  their  meetings  in  a  private  house,  because 
their  number  was  not  large  enough  to  justify  them  in  having 
a  church. 

Zanchi  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  all  the  Italians 
who  embraced  the  Reformed  doctrine,  for  his  talents,  learn- 
ing, and  piety.  He  was  a  native  of  Azano,  in  the  territory 
of  Bergamo.  The  reading  of  the  works  of  Melancthon, 
Bullinger,  Musculus,  and  other  Reformers,  and  the  hearing 
of  the  lectures  of  Martyr,  led  him  to  renounce  his  monastic 
life,  and  the  other  errors  of  Rome,  for  the  gospel.  He  came 
to  Strasburg  by  way  of  the  Grisons  and  Geneva,  and  had 
the  intention  originally  of  passing  over  to  England.  Differ- 
ence of  opinion  from  some  of  his  feUow-professors  on  the 
points  which  divided  the  Calvinists  (to  whom  he  belonged) 
and  the  Lutherans,  led  him,  upon  the  death  of  the  celebrated 
Sturmius,  the  great  patron  of  the  Academy  of  Strasburg,  to 
retire  into  Switzerland,  and  thence  to  Chiavenna,  where  he 
preached  five  years.  In  1568,  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  a 
professorship  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  where  he  re- 


160  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

mained  ten  years.  Feeling  the  influence  of  the  prejudice 
which  existed  in  relation  to  his  former  disputes  with  the 
Lutherans,  whilst  at  Strasburg,  he  removed  to  Neustadt,  in 
the  Palatinate,  whither  he  was  invited  by  Count  John  Casi- 
mir,  the  administrator  or  governor.  But  he  did  not  live  long 
afterwards ;  he  died  at  Heidelberg,  when  on  a  visit  to  that 
city,  in  the  year  1590.  He  was  a  man  of  remarkable  mod- 
eration, and  yet  possessed  great  firmness.  His  ability  was 
such  that  Sturmius  used  to  say  that  he  would  not  be  afraid 
to  trust  him  alone  in  a  dispute  against  all  the  Fathers  as- 
sembled at  Trent.  He  was  the  author  of  many  works,  — 
which  were  collected  and  printed  in  eight  folio  volumes  at 
Geneva,  in  the  year  1613. 

The  celebrated  Olympia  Morata,  as  we  have  elsewhere 
stated,  sought  refuge  in  Germany.  For  several  years  she 
lived  in  great  contentment  and  happiness  at  Schweinfurt,  an 
imperial  town  in  Franconia,  the  birthplace  of  her  husband. 
There,  surrounded  by  kind  friends,  and  by  her  books,  she 
resumed  her  studies.  But  the  place  having  been  taken  by 
Albert,  Marquis  of  Brandenburg,  underwent  a  long  siege  by 
the  German  princes,  who  were  determined  to  expel  him. 
During  much  of  this  time,  this  accomplished  and  excellent 
lady,  who  had  never  been  accustomed  to  such  exposures, 
lived  in  a  damp  cellar.  And  when  the  city  was  taken,  she 
escaped  with  no  little  difficulty,  in  disguise,  to  a  neighboring 
village,  in  a  state  of  great  exhaustion.  'If  you  had  seen 
me,'  she  writes  to  her  friend  Curio,  'with  my  feet  bare  and 
bleeding,  my  hair  dishevelled,  and  my  borrowed  clothes  all 
torn,  you  would  have  pronounced  me  the  queen  of  beggars.' 

The  Elector  Palatine  after  this  calamity  gave  her  husband 
a  place  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  whither  they  re- 
moved. For  awhile  her  friends  hoped  that  her  tender  con- 
stitution would  survive  the  rude  shock  which  it  had  received, 
and  recover  its  former  vigor.     She  even  began  to  resume 


ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    IN    THE   NETHERLANDS.        161 

her  literary  pursuits,  and  was  surrounding  herself  with  the 
books  which  her  friends  were  sending  her,  to  replace  those 
which  she  had  lost' — for  all  her  library,  and,  what  is  worse, 
all  her  own  manuscripts,  had  perished  in  the  siege  and  cap- 
ture of  Schweinfurt.  But  soon  her  health  began  to  decHne, 
and  she  went,  by  a  rapid  consumption,  to  the  tomb.  She 
died,  lamented  by  all  who  knew  her,  on  the  26th  of  October, 
1555,  in  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  her  age.  Her  end  was 
eminently  peaceful  and  resigned.  To  the  last,  she  felt  a 
deep  interest  in  her  dear  '  Italia,'  though  she  had  long  lost 
all  desire  to  return  thither,  since  Truth  had  been  allowed  to 
fall,  and  its  friends  to  pour  out  their  blood  in  vain.  After 
her  death,  her  friend  and  correspondent.  Curio,  published  her 
works,  which  consist  of  letters,  dialogues  in  Latin  and  Ital- 
ian, and  Greek  poems,  chiefly  paraphi'ases  of  the  Psalms,  in 
heroic  and  Sapphic  verse.  ^  Such  was  the  end  of  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  and  most  lovely  women  whom  the  world 
has  ever  seen. 

VI.     Italian  Protestants  in  the  Netherlands. 

It  is  probable  that  a  few  Italian  and  Spanish  Protestants 
took  refuge  in  Amsterdam,  Eotterdam,  Breda,  etc.  But  it 
was  at  Antwerp,  then  and  for  a  long  time  afterwards,  one  of 
the  greatest  emporiums  in  Europe,  that  most  of  those  settled, 
who  went  to  the  Netherlands.  The  doctrines  of  the  Refor- 
mation early  gained  an  entrance  into  that  city,  owing  to  the 
great  number  of  strangers  who  flocked  to  it,  and  to  the  greater 
freedom  of  opinion  which  commerce  ever  brings  in  its  train. 

At  first,  and  for  several  years,  the  Italian  Protestants  at 
Antwerp  worshipped   with  the   French   Protestant   church, 


90  Dr.  McCrie's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  pp.  359—361.  The  works  of 
Olympia  Morata  were  published  in  1558,  in  one  volume,  and  went  through  four 
editions  in  twenty -two  years.  All  her  productions  display  a  pious  and  highly  cul- 
tivated mind. 

14* 


162  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

wliich  was  formed  there  soon  after  the  Netherlands  had 
thrown  off  the  dommation  of  Spain.  But  in  the  year  1580, 
as  their  number  had  greatly  augmented,  they  resolved  to 
organize  themselves  into  a  separate  church.  They  invited 
Zanehi  to  be  their  pastor ;  but  engagements  elsewhere  pre- 
vented him  from  accepting  their  call.  He  recommended, 
however,  Ulixio  Martinengho,  whom  it  is  probable  they 
chose  as  their  spiritual  guide. 

It  would  seem  that  the  Spanish  Protestants  had  a  church 
of  their  own  at  Antwerp,  long  before  the  Italians.  It  is 
probable  that  they  were  far  more  numerous  in  that  city ;  nor 
is  it  strange  that  they  should  be.  For  the  Netherlands  had 
for  many  years  been  under  the  government  of  Spain,  and 
Antwerp  had  maintained  an  extensive  trade  with  that 
country.  It  was  to  the  Protestant  merchants  of  that  city  that 
Spain  was  greatly  indebted  for  the  holy  Scriptures  and  other 
religious  books  in  her  vernacular  tongue.  Antonio  de  Cor- 
ran,  or  Corranus,  of  Seville,  was  pastor  of  the  Spanish  church 
in  Antwerp,  before  the  capture  of  that  city  by  the  bloody 
Duke  of  Alva,  in  the  year  1568.  After  the  recovery  of  its 
liberty,  and  the  return  of  the  exiles  to  their  former  asylum, 
they  had  another  native  of  Seville,  Cassiodoro  de  Reyna,  the 
translator  of  the  Bible,  as  their  pastor  until  1585,  when  the 
city  was  brought  again  under  the  Spanish  yoke,  by  the  Duke 
of  Parma,  after  one  of  the  most  memorable  sieges  in  modern 
times.  Before  his  settlement  at  Antwerp,  De  Reyna  had 
resided  for  a  time  at  Strasburg,  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  and 
other  cities  in  Germany,  where  he  found  a  number  of  his 
countrymen.  At  Basle  he  finished  his  translation  of  the 
Bible,  upon  which  he  had  bestowed  much  labor  and  pains  for 
several  years. 


ITALIAN    CHURCH   AT    LONDON.  163 

VII.     Italian  Protestant   Church  at  London. 

To  the  honor  of  England  it  must  be  said  that  she  afforded 
an  asylum  to  Protestants  of  every  country,  who  fled  from 
persecution  at  the  commencement  of  the  Reformation.  The 
Dutch,  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  Protestants  had  churches 
of  their  own  in  London,  and  the  two  former  had  places  of 
worship  for  some  time  in  Southwark,  Canterbury,  Norwich, 
Colchester,  Maidstone,  Sandwich,  and  Southampton.  ^^  The 
Italian  and  Spanish  Protestants  who  resided  in  these  places 
united  with  the  French. 

There  was  an  Italian  church  in  London  as  early  as  1551, 
of  which  Michael  Angelo  Florio  was  pastor.  After  the 
death  of  Queen  Mary,  Jeronimo  Jerlito  succeeded  Florio. 
The  most  distinguished  members  of  this  church  were  Jacomo 
Contio,  or  Acontius,  Battista  Castiglioni,  Giulio  Borgarusci, 
Camillo  Cardoini,  and  Albericus  Gentilis.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Italian  congregation  appears  to 
have  united  with  the  French.  Yet  Antonio  de  Dominis, 
former  Archbishop  of  Spalatro,  preached  in  Italian  in  Lon- 
don, in  1616,  and  had  one  of  the  Calandrini  for  a  colleague.^ 

The  Spanish  Protestants  in  London  do  not  appear  to  have 
had  a  congregation  of  their  own  till  the  accession  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  Their  first  pastor  was  one  Cassiodoro.  The 
countenance  given  by  England  to  Protestant  exiles,  and 
especially  to  those  from  Spain,  gave  great  offence  both  to  the 
pope  and  to  the  king  of  Sj^ain.  Pius  V.  specifies  tliis  fact 
as  the  ground  of  one  of  the  charges  against  Elizabeth,  in  his 
bull  excommunicating  her.  This  decree  was  triumphantly 
answered  by  Bishop  Jewel.  As  to  the  king  of  Spain,  he 
thought  to  punish  England  and  her  queen  for  this  and  other 
offences,  by  sending  against  her  his  Armada,  proudly  styled 


91  Strype's  Annals,  i.  554. 

^•2  Dr.  McCrie's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain,  p.  270. 


164  ITALIAN    PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

invincible.  But  God  frustrated  all  his  devices,  and  England 
remained  unsubdued,  and  the  home  of  the  oppressed  of  every 
land. 

In  the  year  1568,  Corranus  came  over  from  Antwerp,  to 
become  pastor  of  the  Spanish  church  at  London.  But 
the  most  distinguished  of  all  the  emigrants  to  England,  from 
the  Peninsula,  was  Cypriano  de  Valera,  who  was  the  author 
of  several  valuable  works,  among  which  may  be  specified  his 
translations  of  the  Bible,  and  of  the  Catechism  and  Institutes 
of  Calvin,  into  Spanish. 

VIII.      Concluding  Remarks. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  conclusion  of  what  we  pur- 
posed to  say  respecting  the  rise,  progress,  and  suppression  of 
the  Reformation  in  Italy.  We  have  endeavored  to  trace  the 
means  by  which  Truth  for  awhile  gained  ground  rapidly  in 
that  country ;  and  have  related  by  what  measures  the  cheer- 
ing prospect  was  soon  blighted  and  destroyed.  And  we  have 
followed  the  noble  bands  of  those  who  forsook  all  for  Christ, 
into  the  various  countries  to  which  they  turned  their  faces 
when  they  left  their  native  land. 

'  Some  natural  tears  they  dropt,  but  wiped  them  soon ; 
The  world  was  all  before  them,  where  to  choose 
Their  place  of  rest,  and  Providence  their  guide.' 

In  whatever  light  we  view  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  it 
must  appear  to  us  a  most  interesting  movement.  There  was 
every  influence  employed  to  oppose  it.  It  took  place  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  dominions  of  the  '  Man  of  Sm.'  All  that 
power,  all  that  persuasion,  all  that  alluring  temptation,  all 
that  cunning  and  intrigue,  and  all  that  helhsh  cruelty  could 
do,  was  put  in  requisition  to  arrest  and  put  down  the  glorious 
undertaking.     And  yet,  amid  all  these  obstacles,  the  work 


CONCLUDING   KEMAEKS.  165 

went  on,  until  thousands,  and  tens  of  thousands,  of  the  best 
minds  in  that  country  embraced  the  Truth,  and  for  it  forsook 
all  that  earth  can  afford  of  what  is  most  dear,  most  attractive 
to  the  human  heart.  And  although  many  had  not  the 
courage  to  persevere,  and  therefore  drew  back  with  the  hope, 
that  they  might  adhere  to  the  gospel  in  secret,  whilst  main- 
taining an  external  communion  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  there  was  a  '  cloud  of  witnesses '  who  nobly  stood  up 
for  the  glorious  cause  of  Christ  and  his  croTVTi,  and  whose 
record  is  on  liigh.  In  no  other  country  was  there  such  an 
eclecticism  in  the  Reformation,  if  we  may  so  speak,  as  in 
Italy.  A  large  number  of  those  who  embraced  the  new  doc- 
trines, were  persons  of  distinguished  talents  and  attainments. 
Many  belonged  to  the  highest  ranks  of  society.  We  doubt 
whether  it  would  have  been  easy  to  find  an  equal  number  of 
people  in  that  country  or  any  other,  at  that  day,  who  were 
their  equals  in  every  thing  which  constitutes  true  excellence. 
They  were  in  every  sense  a  noble  band.  And  those  who 
suffered  death,  and  those  who  '  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things,' 
were  martyrs  for  the  Truth,  whose  example,  as  well  as  their 
testimony,  ought  ever  to  be  accounted  most  precious.  '  The 
firm  endurance  of  suffering  by  the  martyrs  of  conscience,' 
says  one  of  the  most  philosophical  writers  of  modem  times,  '  if 
it  be  rightly  contemplated,  is  the  most  consolatory  spectacle 
in  the  clouded  life  of  man ;  far  more  ennobling  and  sublime 
than  the  outward  victories  of  virtue,  which  must  be  partly 
won  by  weapons  not  her  own,  and  are  often  the  lot  of  her 
foulest  foes.  Magnanimity  in  enduring  pain  for  the  sake  of 
conscience  is  not,  indeed,  an  unerring  mark  of  rectitude ;  but 
it  is  of  all  other  destinies  that  which  most  exalts  the  sect  or 
party  whom  it  visits,  and  bestows  on  their  story  an  undying 
command  over  the  hearts  of  their  fellow-men.'  ^ 

93  Sir  James  Mackintosh's  History  of  England^  vol.  ii.  p.  327. 


166  ITALIAN   PROTESTANTS    DISPERSED. 

But  in  what  state  did  the  exiles  from  Italy  leave  that 
country  ?  And  what  were  the  effects  of  the  suppression  of 
the  Reformation  there  ?  These  questions,  and  many  others, 
will  fall  under  our  consideration,  when  we  come  to  the  second 
portion  of  our  work  —  Protestantism  in  Italy  in  our  day. 
Upon  this  subject  we  are  now  to  enter. 


PART   II. 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  ITALY. 


PART    II. 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  ITALY:  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL  STATE  OF  ITALY  SINCE  THE  REFORMATION. 

We  come  now  to  the  second  portion  of  our  work  — 
Protestantism  in  Italy  at  the  present  Time. 

In  discussing  this  subject,  we  shall  begin  by  taking  a  retro- 
spective view  of  the  state  of  that  country,  from  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Reformation  ^  to  our  own  times,  dwelling  chiefly 
on  those  topics  which  have  a  bearing,  more  or  less  direct,  on 
the  moral  and  religious  interests  of  its  inhabitants. 


1  It  is  difficult  to  fix  the  epoch,  at  which  it  may  be  said  that  the  extirpation  of  the 
Reformed  doctrine  was  completed.  Open  and  active  persecution,  as  we  have 
seen,  began  to  be  entered  upon  by  Rome  in  the  year  1542.  And  although  it  is  true 
that  the  work  of  destroying  the  '  Lutheran  heresy '  was  mainly  accompHshed 
within  a  period  of  about  twenty  years,  or  before  the  year  1562  had  passed,  yet  it  is 
not  less  certain  that,  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  the  new  opinions  had  many  secret 
friends  until  the  end  of  that  centur>\ 

It  is  even  asserted,  on  good  authority,  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers  were 
held,  and  their  writings  read  by  many  in  the  city  of  Venice,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  friends  of  evangelical  religion  in  that  place  were  in  the 
habit  of  holding  secret  meetings  for  worship,  separate  from  those  M'hich  the  ambas- 
sadors of  Protestant  States  were  permitted  to  maintain  for  the  use  of  themselves, 
their  families,  and  their  dependants. 

15 


170  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

I.     Political  Changes  through  which  Italy  has  passed  since 
the  Reformation. 

It  does  not  comport  with  the  nature  of  this  work  to  enter, 
in  detail,  upon  a  consideration  of  the  numerous  political 
phases  which  that  country  presented  during  the  period  of 
which  we  are  writing.  And  yet  a  brief  notice  of  the  most 
important  changes  which  it  underwent  may  be  neither  useless 
nor  unacceptable. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  there  still 
remained  a  considerable  amount  of  liberty  in  Italy,  although 
the  numerous  republics  which  had  sprung  up  in  preceding 
centuries  had  lost  much  of  their  freedom  through  the  success- 
ful intrigues  of  domestic  and  foreign  enemies.  The  Roman 
commonwealth  had  ceased  with  the  ineffectual  efforts  of 
Rienzi  and  other  patriots,  as  early  as  the  year  1354.  In  the 
other  states,  ambitious  and  powerful  families,  after  having 
raised  themselves  to  power  by  their  distinguished  services, 
finished  by  usurping  the  liberties  of  the  j^teople.  Of  these, 
the  houses  of  the  Medici  at  Florence,  of  the  Visconti  and 
Sforza  at  Milan,  of  Este  at  Ferrara,  of  Gonzaga  at  Mantua, 
of  Pestrucci  at  Sienna,  as  well  as  many  others,  gave  notable 
illustrations.  The  republics  were  all  become  oligarchies,  and 
in  a  sense  petty  tyrannies,  at  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation. 
Yet  as  they  were  independent  of  each  other,  and  jealous 
both  of  the  popes  and  of  the  emperors  of  Germany,  they 
afforded,  for  awhile,  no  little  protection,  as  we  have  seen,  to 
the  friends  of  the  Truth. 

But  even  then,  the  extinction  of  some  states,  and  the  con- 
version of  others  into  duchies,  or  ducal  monarchies,  had 
made  no  inconsiderable  progress.  This  process  continued 
until  there  was  not,  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  a  vestige  of  liberty  left  in  Italy,  save  what  existed 


POLITICAL    CHANGES.  171 

• 

in  the  republics  of  Genoa,  Venice,  and  San  Marino.  And  at 
the  close  of  that  century,  even  the  two  former  ceased  to  exist ; 
and  San  Marino,  probably  the  smallest  independent  state  in 
the  world,  remained  the  only  one  in  Italy  where  the  people 
had  any  direct  influence  in  the  choice  of  their  rulers  and  the 
enactment  of  their  laws.  All  the  far-famed  republics  of  that 
country  had  sunk  down  into  mere  municipalities,  and  enjoyed 
no  other  right  than  that  of  petition.  But  let  us  take  a 
hasty  survey  of  the  several  subdivisions  of  the  country,  and 
bestow  a  few  paragraphs  on  their  origin,  commencing  at  the 
south. 

After  passing  through  various  fortunes,  Naples,  which  was 
an  appanage  of  Spain,  and  governed  by  a  viceroy  at  the  time 
of  the  Reformation,  became,  in  process  of  time,  an  indepen- 
dent kingdom,  under  the  title  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  The 
accession  of  Charles,  Infant  of  Spain,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century,  gave  to  that  country  the  Bourbon- Spanish 
Royal  family,  which  reigns  there  at  the  present  day.  In  the 
days  of  Napoleon  it  was  conquered  by  the  French,  who 
placed  successively  over  it  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  Murat, 
brother  and  brother-in-law  of  that  wonderful  man.  But  his 
second  downfall,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  brought  back 
the  old  dynasty,  with  all  its  bigotry,  its  vices,  and  its  hatred 
of  light  and  liberty.  This  kingdom  is  the  largest  in  extent 
and  population  of  all  the  states  of  Italy,  and  its  limits  have 
undergone  few  changes  for  more  than  one  hundred  years. 

North  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  lie  the  Estates 
of  the  Church,  or  Kingdom  of  the  Pope.  These  have  been 
considerably  enlarged  since  the  Reformation,  by  the  addition 
of  the  Duchy  of  Ferrara,  the  Duchy  of  ITrbino,  and  some  other 
little  territories.  So  that  his  Holiness  now  possesses  the 
whole  of  Romagna,  lying  east  of  the  Apennines,  and  claimed 
by  the  Papal  See,  as  the  double  gift  of  Constantine  and 
Charlemagne.     The  congress  of  Vienna,  however,  took  away 


172  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

a  strip'  of  land  north  of  the  Po,  and  made  that  river  the 
boundary  in  that  direction  of  the  papal  kingdom. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Peninsula,  the  Duchy  of  Tuscany 
lies  immediately  north  of  the  Estates  of  the  Church.  By 
one  encroachment  after  another  on  its  neighbors,  Sienna, 
Pisa,  etc.,  the  Medician  tyrants,  who  overthrew  the  republic 
of  Florence,  built  up  the  j)resent  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany. 
The  house  of  Medici  becoming  extinct  in  1737,  Francis 
Stephen,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  received  the  sovereign  power  of 
Tuscany.  Becoming  emperor  of  Germany  in  1745,  he 
made  it  the  appanage  of  the  younger  line  of  the  Austro-Lor- 
raine  line,  to  which  it  still  belongs.  It  is  m  this  way  that 
the  ducal  family  became  so  intimately  related  to  the  house  of 
Hapsburg. 

On  the  northwestern  side  of  Tuscany  is  the  little  Duchy  of 
Lucca,  stretching  down  from  the  Apennines  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  year  1370  saw  this  little  state  receive  an  inde- 
pendent existence.  It  was  a  republic  governed  by  a  gonfalo- 
nier e,  or  captain-general,  until  1797.  Napoleon  united  it  to 
Piombino,  and  gave  it  to  one  of  his  brothers-in-law,  as  a 
principality.  In  1815  the  congress  of  Vienna  granted  it  to 
the  Infanta  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain, 
and  widow  of  the  late  king  of  Etruria.  Upon  the  death  of 
Maria  Louisa,  the  Duchess  of  Parma,  the  Duchess  of  Lucca 
is  to  succeed  her  in  that  principality ;  and  then  Lucca  is  to 
become  united  to  Tuscany.  Such  was  the  decision  of  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815. 

The  greatly  larger  Duchy  of  Modena  lies  north  of  the 
Apennines,  and  stretches  down  to  the  Po.  It  has  the  Estates 
of  the  Church  on  the  east  and  the  Duchy  of  Parma  on  the 
Avest.  This  duchy  became  an  independent  principality  in 
1597,  when  the  illegitimate  Cesare  d'Este,  a  cousin  by 
marriage  of  the  last  Duke  of  Ferrara,  received  Modena  and 
Reggio.    The  reigning  Duke  is  Francis  IV.,  son  of  the  Arch- 


POLITICAL    CHANGES.  173 

duke  Ferdinand,  of  Austria,  (a  brother  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold II.,)  and  the  only  daughter  of  Ercole  III.,  a  descendant 
of  Cesare  d'Este.  The  congi-ess  of  Vienna  augmented  the 
territory  of  this  Duchy,  by  adding  to  it  the  little  districts  of 
Mirandola,  Corregio,  Massa,  Carrara,  and  others  still 
smaller. 

The  Duchy  of  Parma  lies  west  of  Modena,  and  also  reaches 
from  the  Apennines  to  the  river  Po.  This  Duchy  was 
created  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  for  his  infamous  illegitimate  son, 
Pietro  Luigi.  Elizabeth  Farnese,  a  descendant  of  this 
Luigi,  having  man^ied  Philip  V.,  of  Spain,  the  Duchy  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons.  It  was  afterwards 
ceded  to  Austria,  when  Don  Carlos,  son  of  Philip  V.,  became 
king  of  Naples.  The  congress  of  Vienna  granted  the  Duchy 
of  Parma,  including  Piacenza  and  Guastalla,  to  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa,  the  widow  of  Napoleon.  By  a  subse- 
quent arrangement  it  has  been  decided  that  she  is  to  be 
succeeded  by  the  Duchess  of  Lucca,  or  her  heirs. 

The  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy  are  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  Po,  on  the  west  by  the  Tecino  (a  branch  of  the 
Po)  and  Lake  Maggiore.  They  include  a  large  portion  of 
the  ancient  duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua,  a  small  part  of 
Parma,  and  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  the  whole  of 
the  Venetian  territories,  save  Istria  and  the  little  Canton  of 
Civida,  which  are  united  to  Blyria.  It  is  in  many  respects 
the  finest  part  of  Italy.  The  history  of  its  connection  with 
Austria,  briefly  stated,  is  this.  The  large  Duchy  of  IVIilan 
was  constituted  by  the  Emperor  "Wenceslaus,  in  the  year 
1395.  The  celebrated  famihes  of  the  Visconti  and  Sforzas 
ruled  it  till  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Louis  XII.  and  Francis  I.,  attempting  to  add  it  to  France,  a 
long  war  ensued,  in  which  the  Milanese  were  assisted,  first 
by  the  Swiss  and  afterwards  by  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
Charles  V.  The  French  were  driven  out  of  Italy.  Charles 
15* 


174  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

y.  having  gained  possession  of  tlie  Ducliy,  left  it  to  his  son 
Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  to  which  country  it  was  subject 
till  1706,  when  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Austria.  In 
the  years  1735  and  1745,  portions  of  it  w^ere  ceded  to  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia.  In  1796  and  1797,  Napoleon  con- 
quered all  the  north  of  Italy,  and  out  of  the  duchies  of  Milan, 
Mantua,  and  some  other  territories,  he  formed  the  Cisalpine 
Republic.  In  1801,  this  was  succeeded  by  the  Italian  Re- 
public. And  this  again  gave  place  in  1805,  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  The  congress  of  Vienna  united  the  duchies  of 
Milan  and  Mantua,  together  with  the  Valteline  and  the 
counties  of  Bormio  and  Chiavenna,  wdiich  had  belonged  to 
the  Grisons,  to  the  Venetian  territories,  wliich  she  had 
claimed  since  1797,  and  thus  constituted  the  present  Lom- 
bardo-Venetian  kingdom,  the  capitals  of  which  are  Milan 
and  Venice. 

And  thus  disappeared,  finally  and  forever,  the  celebrated 
republic  of  Venice,  after  it  had  existed  fourteen  centuries. 
The  French,  in  the  year  1797,  ceded  it,  and  all  its  territories 
east  of  the  Adige,  including  Itria  and  Dalmatia,  to  Austria. 
In  1805,  Napoleon  retook  them  from  Austria,  and  annexed 
them  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  And,  as  we  have  just  said,  the 
congress  of  Vienna  added  Venice  and  all  its  territories 
around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Gulf,  which  once  embraced 
three  millions  of  inhabitants,  to  the  empire  of  Austria. 

In  the  northwestern  part  of  Italy  lies  Piedmont,  the  most 
extensive  and  most  valuable  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia. 
This  kingdom  is  a  modern  one.  The  claims  of  Emmanuel 
Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy,  to  the  greater  portion  of  what  is 
now  called  Piedmont,  were  acknowledged  by  France  and 
Spain  in  the  treaty  of  Cambray,  in  the  year  1559.  In  the 
treaty  of  peace  at  Utrecht,  in  the  year  1714,  Austria  obtained 
Naples  and  the  Island  of  Sardinia.  The  latter  she  ceded  to 
Savoy,  in  exchange  for  the  Island  of  Sicily,  which  had  fallen 


POLITICAL    CHANGES.  175 

to  that  power.  From  that  time  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  dates 
its  origin.  Augmented  by  portions  of  the  former  Duchy  of 
Milan,  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  district  of  Nice  on  the 
other,  it  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  considerable  state.  Napoleon 
overran  and  conquered  all  the  continental  part  of  the  king- 
dom, and  annexed  it  to  the  French  empire.  But  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna  restored  things  to  their  former  footing,  and 
added  the  city  of  Genoa  and  its  territory  —  contrary  to  the 
express  engagements  of  the  British  general,  Lord  William 
Bentinck  —  to  the  Sardinian  monarchy. 

It  appears  from  the  preceding  survey,  that  during  the  last 
three  centuries,  or  the  period  which  has  elapsed  since  the 
Reformation,  Italy  has  undergone  vast  changes.  In  fact,  no 
part  of  that  country  has  remained  in  its  former  state,  save 
the  little  republic  of  San  Marino,  ^  perched  on  its  mountam 
top,  and  quietly  looking  down  upon  the  distant  Adriatic. 
Nothing  but  its  weakness  and  insignificance  have,  for  nearly 
fourteen  centuries,  protected  it  from  the  rapacity  of  the  con- 
querors who  have  so  often  traversed  the  whole  country. 

We  conclude  what  we  had  purposed  to  say  under  this 
head,  by  giving  a  summary  view  of  the  extent  and  population 
of  the  several  divisions  of  Italy,  derived  from  the  best  sources 
with  which  we  have  been  able  to  meet.     We  have  reason, 


3  It  has  been  common  to  associate  the  little  principality  of  Monaco,  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean,  east  of  Nice,  with  San  Marino,  in  the  category  of  ancient  States 
which  have  remained  unchanged  by  all  the  modern  revolutions.  But  this  is  not 
correct.  Monaco  was  subject  to  France  during  Bonaparte's  reign,  and  was  a 
constituent  part  of  the  '  grand  Empire.'  The  congress  of  Vienna  restored  it  to  its 
proper  princes,  and  placed  it  under  the  protection  of  Sardinia. 

The  principality  of  Monaco  has  about  the  same  population  as  the  republic  of  San 
Marino.  But  Monaco  has  an  area  of  five  hundred  and  thirty-five  square  miles ; 
whilst  its  distant  rival  has  but  forty-four.  The  capital  of  Monaco  is  a  pleasant  little 
seaport  of  twelve  hundred  inhabitants ;  that  of  San  Marino  caps  the  top  of  a 
high  hill  or  mountain,  like  many  other  towns  which  one  sees  on  the  skirts  of  the 
Apennines,  and  has  a  population  of  some  three  thousand  souls.  And  whilst 
Monaco  is  governed  by  an  hereditary  prince,  San  Marino  chooses  her  gonfaloniere 
once  in  six  months. 


176  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

however,  to  believe  that  the  amount  of  population  stated  is 
considerably  less  than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  It  is  given 
from  a  census  taken  nearly  ten  years  ago.  The  actual  ag- 
gregate population  of  all  Italy  cannot  be  much  short  of 
twenty-two  millions. 


Names  of  the  States. 

Extent  in  square  miles. 

Population. 

Kingdom  of  Naples, 

43,052 

- 

7,434,300 

Kingdom  of  Sardinia, 

-     29,534 

- 

-     4,123,000 

Austrian  Lombardy,     - 

18,450 

- 

4,278,902 

Estates  of  the  Church, 

-     17,572 

- 

-     2,592,329 

Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany, 

8,759 

- 

1,275,000 

Duchy  of  Parma,      - 

-       2,253 

. 

-        437,400 

Duchy  of  Modena, 

2,145 

- 

379,000 

Duchy  of  Lucca, 

434 

- 

145,000 

San  Marino, 

-       44 

- 

-       8,400 

122,243  20,673,331 

The  area  of  Italy  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland ;  but  its  population  is  three  or  four  millions  less. 

II.  Progress  of  Civilization  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation, 

In  our  remarks  under  this  head,  we  shall  use  the  word 
civilization  in  its  lowest,  rather  than  its  highest,  acceptation. 
We  shall  employ  it  to  denote  whatever  relates  to  the  well- 
being  and  comfort  of  society,  considered  in  its  temporal  con- 
dition and  relations,  rather  than  those  higher  and  more 
spiritual  interests  which  should  be  included  in  our  conceptions 
of  the  noblest  civilization.  Taken  in  this  lower  sense,  then, 
we  can  have  no  hesitation  in  saying,  that  civilization  has 
very  considerably  advanced  in  Italy  during  the  last  thi'ce 
centuries.     Let  us  look  at  a  few  particulars. 

1.  The  external  state  of  society  has  unquestionably  im- 
proved. The  laboring  classes  of  the  people  have  better 
abodes,  and  are  more  comfortably  clothed,  than  at  the  epoch 


PROGRESS    OF    CIVILIZATION.  177 

of  the  Reformation.  There  is  much  to  be  desired  still,  on 
these  points.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  squalid  poverty  in 
some  parts  of  Italy,  and  consequently  much  suffering.  Many 
among  the  lowest  classes  have  poor  and  scanty  food.  Of  this, 
their  countenances  and  persons  bear  testimony  which  cannot 
deceive.  And  yet,  no  one  can  visit  Italy  extensively,  as  we 
have  done,  in  the  chilly  season  of  winter  and  early  spring, 
as  well  as  under  the  scorching  suns  of  August  and  September, 
without  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the  physical  state  of 
society  in  that  country  has  greatly  improved  within  the  last 
two  or  three  hundred  years,  or  else  the  descriptions  which 
we  read  in  books,  written  at  that  time,  were  shocking  exag- 
gerations. Even  within  the  last  hundred  years,  there  has 
been  a  decided  amelioration,  of  which  any  one  may  be  con- 
vinced, if  he  wiU  read  the  accounts  which  travellers  have 
given  us,  who  wrote  at  that  time.  ^ 

There  has  been  a  sensible  progress  within  the  last  fifty 
years,  if  the  statements  of  persons,  w^ho  wrote  at  that  period, 
or  soon  afterwards,  are  to  be  received  as  true.  *  Although, 
in  the  visits  which  we  made  to  that  country,  in  the  years 
1837  and  1843,  we  could  not  but  be  struck  with  the  appear- 
ance of  greater  discomfort  among  the  laboring  classes  there, 
than  we  meet  with  among  our  own  people,  in  the  same  walks 
of  life,  yet  we  must  say  that  our  anticipations,  on  that  point, 
were  greatly  and  most  agreeably  disappointed.  We  found 
more  industry,  frugality,  tidiness  and  cheerfulness ;  more 
cleanliness,  propriety,  and  apparent  comfort  in  their  habita- 
tions, than  we  had  expected.  There  is  still  much  room  for 
improvement,  in  these  particulars  ;  but  not  more  so  than  in 

3  The  reader,  who  would  examine  this   subject  for  himself,  is  referred  to  th 
Travels  in  Ilaly  of  Smollett,  Sharp,  Gray's   Letters,  John  Moore,  Brydone,  which 
treat  more  especially  of  Italy  and  Sicily  as  they  then  were.     The  Travels  of  Gilbert 
Burnet,  Addison,  Wright,  and  Blainville,  though  treating  mainly  of  classical  sub- 
jects, give  also  glances  at  the  then  state  of  life  and  manners  of  the  people. 

4  Lady  Morgan,  Madame  de  Stael  (in  her  Corinna),  Mr.  Beckford,  and  others. 


178  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

those  parts  of  some  liigUy  civilized  countries  of  Europe,  in 
which  there  has  been  unquestionably  great  advance  made 
during  the  last  half  century.  Even  the  Lazzaroni  at  Naples 
are  a  better  clad,  better  fed,  and  better  behaved  people,  than 
they  were  fifty  years  ago,  if  one  may  believe  the  testimony  of 
very  worthy  and  well-informed  inhabitants  of  that  city. 

2.  There  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  the  roads, 
which  is  one  evidence  of  an  advancing  civilization.  In  this 
respect,  as  well  as  in  many  others,  the  dominion  of  the 
French,  which  lasted,  with  but  little  interruption,  from  the 
year  1797  to  the  year  1815,  was  eminently  useful.  Pre- 
viously to  the  former  of  these  epochs,  there  was  scarcely  a 
good  road  in  Italy.  But  the  French  not  only  opened  some 
five  or  six  admirable  macadamized  roads  from  France  and 
Switzerland,  through  the  Alps  into  that  country,  but  they 
also  commenced,  and  would  have  finished,  if  they  had  had 
time,  many  noble  ones  in  various  parts  of  the  entire  Peninsula. 
Wherever  their  influence  was  felt,  there  life  and  vigor  were 
imparted  to  the  social  system ;  nor  were  good  results  slow  in 
manifesting  themselves.  Even  the  old  dynasties,  upon  their 
return  from  exile,  could  not  avoid  catching  something  of  the 
same  spirit,  and  carrying  forward  the  various  enterprises 
which  had  been  undertaken  in  their  absence.  In  consequence 
of  this,  we  now  find  good  roads  between  all  the  principal  cities 
and  most  important  points  of  that  country.  And  this  improve- 
ment is  extending  to  the  vicinal  or  neighborhood  roads  also. 
If  there  is  much  yet  to  be  desired,  let  it  be  remembered  that 
much  has  been  done.  In  Calabria,  as  well  as  in  the  Islands 
of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  the  roads  are  detestable,  yet  scarcely 
worse  than  they  were  in  the  northern  portion  of  Italy,  in  the 
middle,  and  even  latter  part,  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

3.  There  has  also  been  an  unquestionable  improvement  in 
the  agriculture  of  the  country.  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
many  of  the  agricultural  processes   of  the  Italians,  are  what 


PROGRESS    OF    CIVILIZATION.  179 

we  should  deem  antiquated.  Many  of  their  implements  and 
machines  are  exceedingly  clumsy.  In  many  places,  they 
have  much  to  learn  on  the  subject  of  reclaiming  and  renew- 
ing waste  and  worn-out  land.  ^  But,  notwithstanding  all 
this,  we  were  much  struck  with  the  marks  of  slow  but  cer- 
tain progress.  Nor  are  there  wanting  associations  and  indi- 
viduals to  encourage  this  incipient  improvement.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany,  and  in 
the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom. 

No  well-informed  man  can  travel  throughout  Italy,  without 
admiring  the  beauty  and  resources  of  almost  every  portion  of 
it.  Although  a  very  large  part  of  the  Peninsula  is  covered 
with  the  broad  range  of  the  Apennines,  yet  there  is  evidence 
enough  to  show  that,  under  a  wise  and  good  government,  and 
in  possession  of  a  pure  religion,  that  country  might  sustain  a 
vast  population. 

Nothing  can  be  more  pleasant  than  the  olive-orchards,  and 
the  vines  in  festoons,  stretching  from  tree  to  tree,  as  they 
stand  in  wide  rows,  amid  the  growing  wheat,  corn,  and  flax. 
The  valley  of  the  Po,  from  the  Alps  in  Piedmont,  to  the 
Adriatic,  is  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  the  world.  And  the 
valleys  and  plains,  of  various  extent,  which  one  sees  in  the 
Peninsula,  as  well  as  in  the  Islands  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia, 
are  charming  beyond  description.  How  often,  whilst  gazing 
upon  them  from  some  mountain's  summit,  we  have  been  led 
to  say  of  Italy  as  Heber  did  of  India  :  — 

'  Every  prospect  pleases, 
And  only  man  is  vile.' 

5  In  some  places,  alas,  the  insane  practice  of  cutting  away  the  small  timber,  from 
the  precipitous  sides  and  steep  brows  of  the  hills,  has  caused  the  soil  to  be  so  com- 
pletely washed  away  from  even  the  summits,  that  no  art  or  labor  of  man  can  avail  to 
render  them  fruitful  again.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  portion  of  the  pope's 
dominions,  through  which  one  passes,  when  going  from  Rome  up  to  Pisa  or  Flo- 
rence. In  some  parts  of  our  own  country,  there  are  not  wanting  farmers  who  are 
pursuing  the  same  injurious  course. 


180  ITALY    SINCE    THE   REFORMATION. 


III.  Progress  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation, 

We  have  spoken  of  the  progress  of  civilization  in  Italy,  in 
what  is  called  its  lower  manifestations.  We  come  now 
to  speak  of  it  in  what  may  be  denominated  its  higher 
developments. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  Fine  Arts  had  made  much 
progress  in  Italy  before  the  time  of  the  Reformation..  But 
it  must  also  be  conceded  that  those  wonderful  influences 
which  other  parts  of  the  world  felt  to  so  great  a  degree,  —  the 
revival  of  letters,  the  action  of  the  press,  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World,  and  the  opening  up  of  a  highway  to  the  commerce 
of  the  Indies,  by  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the 
augmented  spirit  of  enterprise  of  which  these  great  discoveries 
were  both  an  effect  and  a  cause,  ■ —  exerted  a  mighty  power 
in  waking  up  the  energies  of  the  Italian  mind.  Accordingly, 
we  find  that  the  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts,  in  that  country, 
in  the  three  centuries  which  followed,  was  immensely  greater 
than  in  all  time  previous.     Let  us  look  at  a  few  facts  :  — 

1.  Progress  in  Arcpiitecture.  Since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  sixteenth  century,  what  proud  and  costly 
monuments  of  architecture  have  been  erected  in  Italy  !  We 
can  only  name  a  few  of  them.  The  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter, 
at  Rome,  was  begun  before  that  epoch  ;  but  little  had  been 
accomplished.  Through  the  reigns  of  many  pontiffs,  the 
work  was  carried  forward  under  the  direction  of  no  less  than 
fourteen  eminent  architects,  among  whom  we  may  mention 
Bramante,  Raphael  d'Urbino,  Michael  Angelo,  Bernino,  and 
Marchionni,  to  its  completion,  at  a  cost  of  more  than  fifty 
millions  of  dollars  of  our  money,  without  counting  the  cost  of 
the  paintings,  gilding,  mosaics,  and  the  sacristy.  The  total 
was  probably  not  far  short  of  fifty-five  millions  of  dollars. 
St.  Peter's  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.     The  Cathedral 


PROGRESS    OF    THE    FINE    ARTS.  181 

of  Milan,  tliongli  far  inferior  to  St.  Peter's,  at  Eome,  is  never- 
theless, a  most  splendid  edifice.  It  was  commenced  before 
the  epoch  which  we  have  mentioned  as  our  starting-point,  but 
it  was  mainly  built  afterwards.  The  Church  of  the  Jesuits,  at 
Naples,  is,  in  its  internal  construction  and  ornaments,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  in  the  world.  Many  other  churches 
might  be  mentioned  as  well  as  palaces,  and  other  public  build- 
ings, as  admirable  specimens  of  modern  architecture  in  Italy. 
2.  Progress  in  Sculpture.  The  distinguished  sculp- 
tors of  Italy  are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  in  a  work 
like  this.  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  Tatti,  BandinelK, 
Cellini,  Delia  Porta,  Bernini,  Ferrata,  Brunelli,  Rusconi, 
Algardi,  Lorenzetto,  Rossi,  Canova,  and  many  others,  were 
all  eminent  in  this  branch  of  the  fine  arts.  Some  of  the 
productions  of  these  great  artists  are  justly  reckoned  to  be 
the  finest  specimens  of  modern  or  Christian  art,  and  demon- 
strate its  real  superiority  over  the  ancient,  or  pagan,  if  we 
may  judge  of  the  latter  by  the  remains  which  we  have  of  it. 
Who  can  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  spirit,  the  soul,  which 
beams  forth  in  the  countenance  of  Michael  Angelo's  Moses, 
which  is  in  the  Church  of  Pietro,  in  Vincoli  at  Rome,  and  in 
that  of  the  Jonah  of  Lorenzetto,  which  is  in  the  Church  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Popolo,  also  at  Rome  ?  Or,  who  can  avoid 
admiring  the  virtuous  modesty  and  grace,  which  are  depicted 
in  the  face  of  Canova's  Venus,  in  the  palace  Pitti,  at  Florence  ? 
The  ancients  may  have  surpassed  the  moderns  in  making  the 
human  form  beautiful,  for  they  had  freer  access  to  the  finest 
models  than  can  ever  be  had  in  a  Christian  country  ;  but  they 
had  not  present  to  their  view  those  living  specimens  of  virtue 
and  purity,  nor  did  they  possess  those  elevated  conceptions 
of  perfection,  which  Christianity  alone  can  give.  Their  pro- 
ductions were  faithful  delineations  of  the  humanity  with  which 
they  were  conversant ;  but  they  wanted  that  spiritual  beauty 
16 


182  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

which  is  the  highest  effort  of  art.     The  same  remarks  may, 
with  propriety,  be  applied  to  ancient  and  modern  paintings. 

3.  Progress  in  Painting.  This  branch  of  the  fine 
arts  has  been  extensively  cultivated  in  Italy,  since  the 
Reformation.  That  country  abounds  in  the  productions  of 
the  great  masters  of  this  art.  Public  galleries  are  to  be 
found  in  all  the  considerable  cities,  whilst  the  collections  of  dis- 
tinguished noblemen  and  bankers  are  not  only  numerous,  but 
richer  in  masterpieces  than  those  of  any  other  country  in  the 
world.  We  need  mention  only  a  few  of  those  whose  names 
stand  high  on  the  record  of  enduring  fame.  The  works  of 
Raphael,  Giulio  Romano,  Titian,  Tintoretto,  Paul  Veronese, 
the  Carraci,  Guido  Reni,  Domenichino,  Lanfranco,  Caravag- 
gio,  Manfredi,  Spada,  Guercino,  Carlo  Maratto,  Giordano, 
Salvator  Rosa,  and  many  others,  are  the  admiration  of  the 
world.  Among  the  Italian  painters,  of  the  present  century, 
who  have  distinguished  themselves,  we  may  mention  Appiani, 
Camoccini,  Landi,  Grassi,  Benvenuti,  Bossi,  and  Agricola. 
In  engraving,  Longhi,  Raphael  Morghen,  Toschi,  Folo,  Gar- 
avalgia,  Lapi,  and  Schiavonetti  have  been  among  the  most 
renowned  in  modern  times.  In  mosaic  painting,  Lamberto 
Gori  and  others  have  attained  great  distinction. 

4.  Progress  in  Music.  Italy  has  been  more  celebrated 
for  producing  fine  singers^  and  performers,  than  superior 
composers  of  music.  Nevertheless,  she  has  furnished  many 
of  the  last-named  class,  —  especially  since  the  commencement 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  whom  we  may  mention 
Palestrina,  Allegri,  Corelli,  Lulli,  Scarlatti,  Durante,  Por- 
pora,  FenaroUi,  Cimarosa,  Zingarelli,  Sachini,  Paesiello, 
Salieri,  Piccini,  Donizetti,  Bellini,  Rossini,  Cherubini,  Spon- 
tini.  Italian  singers  and  performers  are  famous  throughout 
the  civilized  world. 

6  Among  the  most  remarkable  Italian  singers,  of  our  times,  have  been  Madames 
Catalan!,  Boccabadati,  Schiassetti,  Demeri  Pastra,  Malibran,  and  Grisi  j  and 
Messieurs.  Rubini,  Tamburini,  and  Donzelli. 


STATE    OF   EDUCATION.  183 

It  is  a  most  wonderful  and  most  benevolent  arrangement  of 
the  Creator,  that  a  talent  for  the  great  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  is  so  equally  diffused  among  the  human  race.  There 
have  been  found  in  all  civilized  countries,  men  who  have 
displayed  a  remarkable  genius  for  sculpture,  painting,  music, 
etc.  But  there  is  vast  difference  in  the  degree  to  which  this 
capacity  has  been  cultivated.  In  many  countries,  where  there 
is  no  want  of  talent,  there  has  been,  from  various  circum- 
stances, little  or  no  encouragement  given  to  the  fine  arts. 
In  some,  especially  where  there  is  much  political  liberty, 
there  is  too  much  excitement  in  public  life,  to  allow  men's 
minds  to  be  occupied  with  the  fine  arts.  In  Protestant 
countries,  religion  seeks  but  little  aid  from  this  source.  But 
in  Italy,  the  want  of  public  life,  the  necessity  of  seeking 
enjoyment  in  what  has  no  connection  with  politics,  the  luxury 
and  idleness  which  prevail  among  the  wealthier  classes,  and 
the  encouragement  which  a  religion  affords,  whose  essence  is 
mainly,  at  best,  mere  sentiment,  all  combine  to  give  to  the  fine 
arts  a  high  degree  of  importance.  They  furnish  recreation  and 
amusement  to  the  rich,  and  even,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
to  all,  save  the  abject  poor.  To  all,  they  are  made  auxiliary 
to  devotion ;  whilst  to  many,  they  furnish  their  only  means 
of  subsistence.  It  is  owing  to  these  reasons,  that  Italy  is  the 
home  of  the  fine  arts,  and  that  their  cultivation  has  been  so 
extensively  prosecuted. 

The  reader  will  perceive  presently,  the  connection  which 
the  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts  in  Italy  has  with  the  subject  of 
religion  in  that  country.  He  will  then  see,  that  the  notice 
which  we  have  just  taken  of  their  progress  since  the  Reform- 
ation, has  not  been  an  unnecessary  digression. 

IV.  State  of  Education  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation. 

The   lower   classes    of  people  in  Italy  are  proverbially 
ignorant.     In  most  parts,  there  has  been  but  little  progress, 


184  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

in  the  matter  of  popular  education,  since  the  epoch  of  the 
Reformation.  We  readily  admit  that  there  is,  probably,  no 
portion  of  that  country  or  of  its  insular  dependencies,  in  which 
there  is  not  a  greater  number  of  persons  among  the  masses 
who  can  read,  than  there  was  three  hundred  years  ago ;  for 
civilization,  in  all  its  forms,  has  made  considerable  progress 
everywhere.  But  the  advance,  so  far  as  the  education  of  the 
laboring  people,  especially  of  the  farming  class,  is  concerned, 
has  not  been  great.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Islands 
of  Sardinia  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  of  both  the  provinces  of 
Calabria,  and  other  districts  of  the  peninsular  portion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  There  has  been  some  progress  in  the 
pope's  dominions,  in  the  duchies  of  Lucca,  Modena,  Parma, 
and  Piedmont;  but  it  has  been  very  little.  In  all  those 
countries,  the  great  majority  of  the  lowest  classes  of  people 
are  unable  to  read.  Nor  is  this  ignorance  confined  to  the 
poorer  classes.  There  is  a  far  greater  number  of  people  in 
the  richer  and  higher  classes,  who  are  uneducated,  than  we 
should  think  it  possible  to  find  in  a  country  where  civilization  is 
so  ancient,  or  where  there  is  any  civilization  at  all.  Every  one 
knows  who  has  sojourned  in  Italy,  and  particularly  in  the 
parts  just  named,  that  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  find 
mechanics  and  tradesmen,  who  are  doing  well  in  the  world, 
that  cannot  read.  When  we  were  in  Genoa,  in  the  year 
1843,  we  were  told  on  the  best  authority,  of  two  ladies  in 
the  very  highest  ranks  in  that  city,  who  could  not  read  a 
word.  The  ignorance  of  the  males  in  Italy  is  very  great ; 
but  that  of  the  females  is  far  greater. 

We  are  not  aware  that  any  governments  in  Italy  have- 
established  systems  of  popular  education  for  the  instruction, 
at  the  public  expense,  of  all  classes  of  youth,  save  those  of 
Tuscany  and  the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom.  In  some 
states  nothing  whatever,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn, 
that  is  worthy  of  mention,  has  been  done  by  law.     We  were 


STATE    OF   EDUCATION.  185 

assured  bj  a  distinguished  professor,  since  deceased,  of  the 
University  of  Rome,  when  we  were  there  for  the  first  time, 
in  1837,  that  there  was  no  general  public  provision  for  the 
education  of  the  children  throughout  his  Holiness'  realm,  and 
that  at  least  two  thirds  of  them  were  growing  up  in  complete 
ignorance  of  letters.  '  Nor  is  the  state  of  things,  in  this 
respect,  any  better  in  the  kingdoms  of  Sardinia  and  the  Two 
Sicilies. 

In  Tuscany  and  the  Austrian  Lombardo-Venetian  king- 
dom it  is  different.  In  the  former,  the  grand  duke,  who  is 
the  most  enlightened  prince  in  Italy,  has  done  much  for  the 
education  of  all  classes  of  his  subjects.  Schools  exist  in  all 
the  principal  villages,  which  are  open  to  all  classes.  Gra- 
tuitous schools,  on  Tuesdays  and  other  holydays,  are  kept  up, 
in  which  instruction  is  given,  under  the  eye  of  the  priests, 
particularly  in  the  Catechism  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Through  the  efforts  of  several  benevolent  persons,  ^  at  Flor- 
ence, Pisa,  and  Leghorn,  Infant  Schools  have  been  estab- 
lished in  those  cities,  and  maintained,  for  the  most  part,  by 
the  voluntary  gifts  of  the  well-disposed,  from  the  grand  duke 
down  to  the  humblest  individual.  Several  of  the  schools 
have  been  founded  for  the  benefit  of  the  children  of  the 
Israelites,  who  reside  in  considerable  numbers  in  Tuscany, 
especially  in  the  last-named  city.  ^ 

In  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy,  the  state  of  education 
is  better  than  it  is  in  Tuscany,  so  far  as  the  lowest  classes  of 
the  people  are  concerned.     The  government  of  Austria  has, 


?■  The  pope,  by  a  special  bull  forbade,  a  few  years  ago,  the  establishment  of 
Infant  schools  in  his  dominions. 

8  Among  whom  is  Count  Guicciardini,  an  interesting  young  nobleman,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  celebrated  historian  of  the  same  name. 

9  Many  of  the  eight  or  ten  thousand  Jews  of  Leghorn  are  rich.  One  of  the  syn- 
agogues in  that  city  is  by  far  the  most  splendid  building,  in  its  interior  decorations, 
of  the  kind,  that  we  have  ever  seen.  It  is  much  superior  to  any  thing  at  Amster- 
dam. 

16* 


1  86  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  imbibed  the  spirit  of 
internal  improvement  and  education  which  prevails  in  Ger- 
many, and  which  had  its  origin  in  Prussia.  Nor  is  the  gov- 
ernment of  that  empire  the  only  Roman  Catholic  one  which 
has  caught  the  sacred  flame.  Bavaria,  Saxony,  France,  and, 
as  we  have  just  seen,  Tuscany  also,  have  entered  upon  the 
same  course. 

The  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom  dates  from  the  year 
1814.  During  the  thirty  years  which  have  since  passed 
away,  the  Austrian  government  has  done  much  for  the  in- 
struction of  all  classes  of  people  in  this  portion  of  its  various 
dominions.  Schools  have  been  established  in  all  the  com- 
munes, or  townships,  as  well  as  in  the  villages  and  larger 
towns.  These  schools  are  of  two  classes,  —  the  minor  and 
superior.  In  the  former,  the  elements  of  an  education, — 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  religious  instruction,  —  and 
in  the  more  advanced  classes,  Italian  grammar,  calligraphy, 
epistolary  composition,  the  first  rudiments  of  the  Latin,  the 
History  of  the  Bible,  and  especially  the  lessons  of  the  gospel 
which  occur  on  Sundays  and  other  festivals,  are  taught.  In 
the  superior  schools,  which  are  mostly  in  the  larger  villages 
and  towns,  instruction  is  given  in  the  elements  of  mathe- 
matics, geometry  in  its  application  to  the  arts,  drawing,  archi- 
tecture, mechanics,  geography,  physics,  and,  in  some  of 
them,  history,  book-keeping,  chemistry,  and  the  French  and 
German  languages.  Religious  and  moral  instruction  forms  a 
part  of  every  week's  studies.  This  branch  of  education  is 
intrusted  solely  to  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy.  There  are 
schools  also  for  girls,  in  which  the  instruction  is  adapted  to 
the  duties  and  pursuits  of  the  sex.  All  the  teachers  have 
been  trained  in  normal  schools.  Excellent  moral  and  sani- 
tary regulations  are  enforced,  and  all  corporal  punishment  is 
forbidden.     Cleanliness,  health,  and  propriety  of  conduct  are 


STATE    OF   EDUCATION.  187 

especially   attended   to,   and    the   practice   of  every   \drtue 
sedulously  inculcated. 

Such  is  the  substance  of  the  account  of  the  school  system 
in  the  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy,  which  M.  Valery  has 
given  us.  Its  good  effects  have  been  extolled  by  Sacchi, 
Aporti,  ^^  and  other  Italian  writers.  In  the  year  1832,  there 
were  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty-six  schools  for 
boys,  embracing  one  hundred  and  twelve  thousand  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-seven  pupils,  and  one  thousand  one  hundred 
and  ninety-nine  schools  for  girls,  in  which  there  were  fifty- 
four  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty  pupils,  —  making  in  all 
four  thousand  and  thirty-five  schools,  and  one  hundred  and 
eighty-nine  thousand  scholars  of  both  sexes,  —  in  Lombardy 
alone,  in  a  population  of  two  million  three  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  thousand  inhabitants.  In  the  other  portion  of 
the  kingdom  —  namely,  the  Venetian,  containmg  one  million 
nine  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  it  was  supposed  that  there 
was  as  great  a  number  of  schools  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion. '  Ten  or  twelve  years  ago,'  says  Aporti,  in  the  work 
referred  to,  '  there  were  hardly  any  mistresses  in  Lombardy 
qualified  to  keep  girls'  schools,  except  in  the  convents ; 
whereas  now  there  are  eleven  hundred  well  qualified  female 
teachers.  Infant  schools,  holyday  schools,  and  schools  of 
industry  for  artizans,  have  sprung  up  in  various  towns.  In 
the  province  of  Cremona  there  were,  in  1837,  when  we 
visited  that  city,  fifty-nine  holyday  schools,  many  of  which 
were  attended  by  grown  up  persons,  who  thus  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  elementary  education.  We  had  the  pleasure 
of  visiting  two  interesting  infant  schools  in  that  city,  which 


10  Relazione  suUe  scuole  di  Lonibardia,  e  specicdmente  sulle  scuole  infantili.  In  this 
work  Aporti  speaks  iii  the  highest  terms  of  the  good  moral  and  social  effects  which 
the  schools  of  Lombardy  have  exerted. 


188  ITALY    SINCE   THE   REFORMATION. 

were  commenced  and  supported  by  an  excellent  Roman 
Catholic  priest.     Would  that  there  were  many  such.  ^ 

The  secondary  institutions  of  education,  or  those  of  the 
intermediate  gradation,  are  sufficiently  numerous,  but  are  far 
inferior  to  those  of  most  other  countries  in  Europe,  especially 
those  of  Germany.  These  are  the  lyceums  and  colleges,  in 
which  the  Latin  is  studied  with  considerable  care,  but  the 
Greek  is  almost  wholly  neglected.  Rhetoric  and  logic  are 
studied,  chiefly  after  the  old  manner,  but  the  exact  sciences, 
as  well  as  the  languages,  the  customs,  the  institutions  of  other 
countries,  receive  but  little  attention.  Metaphysics,  where 
cultivated,  are  studied  after  the  rules  of  tiie  schoolmen,  rather 
than  those  which  the  common-sense  philosophy  of  the  present 
times  inculcates.  Mathematics  are  little  studied  in  compari- 
son with  the  principles  of  casuistry. 

The  most  distinguished  institutions  of  the  class  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  are  the  Collegia  Amhrosiana,  and  the 
Collegia  Brera,  both  of  which  are  at  Milan.  Even  they  are 
not  conducted  on  enlarged  principles,  and  owe  more  of  their 
celebrity  to  the  cultivation  of  classical  literature,  than  to  any 
thing  else. 

The  Universities  of  Italy  are  numerous,  and  most  of  them 
ancient.  Those  of  Salerno  and  Bologna  were  founded  in 
the  twelfth  century ;  those  of  Naples,  Padua,  and  Rome  in 
the  thirteenth ;  those  of  Perugia,  Pisa,  Sienna,  and  Pavia  in 
the  fourteenth ;  those  of  Turin,  Parma,  Florence,  and  Catania 
in  the  fifteenth ;  that  of  Cagliari  was  founded,  and  that  of 
Genoa  renewed,  in  the  eighteenth.  We  may  add,  that  the 
University  of  Modena  has  been  lately  reestablished,  after  a 
long  period  of  neglect. 

The  course  of  studies  in  the  Universities  of  Italy,  may  be 


11  Sacchi  has  given  much  information  respecting  the  schools  in  Milan,  in  his 
Quadro  Statistico  delle  Istituzioni  di  pttblica  beneficenza  di  Milano  negli  anni  1830, 
1831. 


STATE    OF    EDUCATION.  189 

pronounced  to  be,  in  general,  too  antiquated  to  impart  that 
knowledge  which  the  advanced  state  of  science  demands. 
Thej  have  too  many  of  the  arts  of  the  schoolmen,  and  too 
obsolete  a  manner  of  communicating  instruction,  to  accom- 
plish all  that  universities  of  this  age  should  perform.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  universities  of  Pavia  and  Padua  maintain  their 
ancient  reputation  for  Medicine,  and  the  other  branches  of 
natural  science,  and  have  many  able  professors.  Pisa  ranks 
next  to  them.  In  fact,  talent  is  not  so  much  wanting  in  any 
of  them,  as  systems  adapted  to  the  present  times. 

The  literary  institutions  in  Italy,  which  have  shared  most 
largely  the  spirit  of  the  times,  are  those  scientific  bodies 
which  are  called  Academies.  These  sprang  up  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  have  increased  to  such  a  degree,  that 
one  or  more  of  them,  is  to  be  found  in  every  principal  city  in 
that  country.  Founded  for  various,  and  for  the  most  part, 
special  studies  and  inquiries,  and  organized  on  a  plan  that,  not 
only  admits,  but  even  requires  considerable  freedom  of  dis- 
cussion, they  have  done  far  more  than  the  universities  to 
elicit  talent,  cultivate  and  encourage  useful  speculation, 
liberalize  the  feelings,  and  augment  practical  knowledge. 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  institutions  is  the  Academia 
della  Cruscciy  at  Florence,  whose  object  is  to  perfect  the 
Italian  language'.  The  Imperial  Institution  at  Milan,  and 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Turin,  are  the  most  flourishing 
of  all  the  Italian  academies,  of  the  present  day.  The  insti- 
tutions for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts  are  numerous,  and 
are  connected  with  schools  in  which  painting,  sculpture,  and 
architecture  are  taught  by  competent,  and  in  many  cases 
distinguished  professors.  The  most  celebrated  and  useful 
of  these  are  at  Bologna,  Rome,  and  Florence. 

Italy  abounds  in  collections  of  books,  and  valuable  manu- 
scripts, but  its  libraries  are  greatly  deficient  in  works  of 
modern  literature  and  science.     The  most  celebrated  of  these 


190  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFOEMATION. 

libraries,  are  that  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  the  Ambrosian  at 
Milan,  that  of  St.  Mark  in  Venice,  and  those  of  the  Maglia- 
bechi  and  the  Medici,  at  Florence. 

In  all  the  large  cities  there  are  museums  of  great  value, 
which  are  thrown  open,  with  a  laudable  liberality,  to  the 
public.  Many  of  the  noblemen  possess  extensive  collections 
of  paintings,  statuary,  antiques,  etc.,  which  are  easy  of  access 
to  respectable  strangers.  The  public  picture  galleries  are 
numerous  and  rich.  Many  of  the  churches  contain  fine 
specimens  of  sculpture  and  painting,  especially  those  of  Rome, 
Florence,  Naples,  Bologna,  Venice,  and  Genoa.  There  are 
extensive  botanic  gardens,  attached  to  several  of  the  univer- 
sities and  larger  cities  ;  and  astronomical  observatories  exist 
in  Padua,  Milan,  Florence,  and  Palermo. 

V.     The  State  of  Literature  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation, 

Under  this  head,  we  include  poetry  as  well  as  literature  in 
general. 

From  1500  to  1650,  has  been  reckoned  the  Augustan  age 
of  Italian  literature.  During  that  period  lived  and  wrote,  in 
theology,  Cajetan,  Baronio,  Bellarmin,  and  Sarpi;  in 
science,  Telesio,  Bruno,  Campanella,  Cardanus,  Galileo,  Cav- 
alieri,  Castelli,  Grimaldi,  Delia  Porta,  Malpighi,  Aldrovandi, 
Colonna,  Torricelli,  Bellini ;  in  history,  Bertibo,  Pallavicino, 
Guicciardini,  Macchiavelli,  Davila,  Bentivoglio  ;  in  politics, 
Sansoverino  and  Botero ;  in  philology,  Robertelli,  Vittorio, 
Ursino,  and  J.  C.  Scaliger  ;  in  criticism,  Bembo,  Tolommei, 
Varchi,  and  Foglietta ;  in  poetry,  Ariosto,  Berni,  Bernardo 
Tasso,  and  his  more  illustrious  son  Torquato,  Guarini, 
Filicaia,  and  Andreini.  These  are  some  of  the  authors  of 
that  period,  who  were  distinguished. 

The  next  period  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  from  1650 
to  1800,  was  far  less  prolific  in  great  writers,  so  far  as  Italy 
is  concerned.     One   cause  of  this  was  unquestionably  the 


STATE    OF   LITERATURE.  191 

prevalence  of  wars,  which,  particularly  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  former  part  of  the  eighteenth, 
agitated  and  distressed  that  country.  But  another,  and  far 
more  influential,  was  the  restrictions  on  the  freedom  of 
thought,  and  of  the  press,  under  which  Italy  groaned.  The 
third  was  the  loss  of  commerce,  and  the  consequent  decrease 
of  wealth,  which  affected  directly  and  indirectly  all  classes. 
To  these  may  be  added,  the  general  depravation  of  morals, 
which  in  this  time  seemed  to  reach  its  acme,  and  which  was 
alike  destructive  to  physical,  moral,  and  mental  vigor.  During 
this  period,  there  flourished  a  considerable  number  of  authors, 
who  wrote  with  much  ability  on  natural  history,  science,  and 
medicine;  such  as  Frisi,  Mascheroni,  Fontana,  Rufiini, 
Cassino,  Torelli,  Redi,  Volta,  Manfredi,  Valsalva,  Morgagni, 
Rammaini,  Borelli,  etc. ;  in  jurisprudence,  Beccaria  and 
Filangieri  were  distinguished ;  in  history,  Gianone,  Denina, 
Muratori,  Tiraboschi,  Maffei  were  the  most  celebrated ;  in 
Latin  and  Greek  literature,  Volpi,  Facciolato,  Targa,  For- 
cellini,  Mazocchi,  and  Morelli  were  the  most  eminent ;  in  phi- 
losophy, Vico,  Stellini,  and  Genovesi  were  preeminent ;  in 
poetry,  there  were  few  who  deserve  mention  ;  among  whom, 
however,  Riccoboni,  Goldoni,  Metastasio,  and  Alfieri  are  the 
best  known. 

During  the  present  century,  the  genius  of  Italy  seems  to 
have  revived,  at  least,  so  far  as  some  departments  of  litera- 
ture are  concerned.  In  natural  history,  mathematics,  and  the 
exact  sciences  she  has  produced,  during  this  period,  many 
able  men,  of  whom  we  may  mention  Delia  Cella,  Brocchi, 
Bordoni,  Zamboni,  Ranconi,  Monticelli,  and  Brunatelli.  In 
history.  Carlo  Botta,  Micali,  Bossi,  Cuoco,  Coletta,  Pignotti, 
Manno,  and  Serra  are  the  most  distinguished.  Ugoni  and 
Lucchesini  have  written  ably  on  Italian  literature  ;  Cicognara, 
on  the  history  of  sculpture ;  Gioja,  on  political  economy ; 
Romagnosi    and  Tamburini  on  jurisprudence.      In  poetry, 


192  ITALY    SINCE    THE    KEFORMATION. 

Italy  has  produced  in  this  century  some  authors  of  great 
merit,  such  as  Monti,  Pellico,  Niccolini,  Grossi,  Sestini, 
Berchet,  Arici,  D'Elci,  Nota,  and  Manzoni.  The  last-named 
author  is  the  Walter  Scott  of  that  country.  He  is  a  univer- 
sal genius,  excelling  at  once,  as  a  philosopher,  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  lyric  poet.  In  his  /  Promessi  Sposi,  he  has 
given  Italy  the  most  perfect  model  of  a  historical  romance. 
His  son-in-law,  the  Marquis  Massimo  d'Azeglio,  in  his  Ettore 
Fieramosca,  and  Professor  Rossini,  in  his  Monaca  di  Monza, 
have  followed  in  his  footsteps  with  success.  Among  the  dis- 
tinguished Italian  writers  of  this  period,  we  must  also  place 
Foscolo,  IppoUito  Pindemonte,  Napione,  Cesari,  and  Gior- 
dani. 

In  the  year  1819,  a  literary  journal,  entitled  the  ConciUatore, 
was  commenced  at  Milan,  of  which  Silvio  Pellico  was  editor, 
and  to  whose  pages  Gioja,  Romagnosi,  Ressi,  Pecchio,  the 
Marquis  Hermes  Visconti,  the  Counts  dal  Pozzo  and  Gio- 
vanni Arrivabene,  Rasori,  Plana,  Carlini,  Mussotti,  Ugoni, 
Sclavini,  Ludovico  di  Breme,  Borsieri,  Maronchelli,  and 
other  able  writers  contributed.  This  journal  was  suppressed 
by  the  Austrian  government  in  1820,  and  several  of  its  con- 
tributors, as  well  as  its  editor,  were  condemned  to  the  j^rison 
of  Spielberg.  ^^  And,  although  its  career  was  short,  the 
Conciliatore  exercised  a  decidedly  happy  influence.  One 
of  the  great  objects  which  its  founders  had  in  view,  was  to 
infuse  a  more  Christian  spirit  into  the  literature  of  Italy, 
which  had,  in  fact,  for  a  long  time,  partaken  largely  of  an 
infidel  character.  Another,  was  to  promote  the  regeneration 
of  the  country.  '  Through  this  journal,'  to  use  the  language 
of  one  of  their  number,  '  they  hoped  to  give  a  new  literary 
direction  to  the  intellect;  or,  in  other  words,  to  restore  letters 


12  For  an  interesting-  account  of  the  imprisonment  of  Silvio  Pellico,  and  his 
companions,  the  reader  is  referred  to  his  Prisons,  with  the  Additions,  by  Piero 
Maronchelli,  published  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  two  volumes,  in  the  year  1836. 


POLITICAL    AND    SOCIAL    CONDITION.  193 

to  their  pure  and  primary  end,  that  is  to  say,  to  lead  to  the 
true  hy  means  of  the  beautiful.'  A  noble  patriotism  seems  to 
have  actuated  this  able  corps  of  writers,  for  they  entered  at 
once  into  admirable  plans  for  promoting  education,  agriculture, 
and  the  useful  arts.  But,  alas,  their  projects  were  soon  in- 
terrupted, and,  for  indulging  in  them,  some  of  their  little  circle 
were  called  to  long  years  of  cruel  suffering  in  the  gloomy 
dungeons  of  a  prison.  ^^ 

It  is,  however,  an  interesting  fact,  that  both  literary  and 
political  journals  have  greatly  increased  in  numbers,  during 
the  present  century,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  restrictions  on 
the  freedom  of  the  press.  Including  every  description,  there 
are  now  fully  two  hundred  periodicals,  newspapers,  maga- 
zines, etc.,  in  Italy,  and  some  of  them  are  conducted  with 
much  ability,  especially  those  of  a  purely  scientific  and 
literary  character. 

VI.     Political  and  Social  Condition  of  Italy  at  present. 

We  have  described,  in  the  former  part  of  this  chapter,  the 
political  changes  and  revolutions  through  which  Italy  has 
passed  since  the  Reformation.  We  propose  now  to  say  a  few 
words  respecting  the  present  governments  of  that  country, 
and  the  effects  which  they  have  produced  on  the  social 
condition  of  the  people. 

From  what  we  have  already  said,  the  reader  has  learned 
two  important  facts  in  relation  to  the  governments  of  Italy. 

First,  that  every  vestige  of  political  freedom  has  disap- 
peared. Venice,  after  an  existence  of  fourteen  centuries, 
ceased*  in  1798,  and  is  now  annexed  to  the  dominions  of 
Austria.  Genoa  forms  a  constituent  part  of  the  Sardinian 
monarchy.     Florence,  Pisa,  Sienna,  Ferrara,  and  all  the  other 


13    Mr.  Maronchelli  has  given  a  full  notice  of  the  Conciliatore ,  and  its  supporters,  ia 
his  Additions  to  the  work  of  Silvio  Pellico,  entitled  My  Prisons. 

17 


194  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

free  cities  which  arose  between  the  tenth  century  and  the 
seventeenth,  have  ceased  to  be  republics,  or  rather  republican 
oligarchies,  if  we  may  use  a  designation  which  better  befitted 
them,  and  are  swallowed  up  in  the  modern  political  organi- 
zations of  the  country.  Excepting  the  little  republic  of  San 
Marino,  there  is  not  a  particle  of  popular  liberty  in  all  Italy, 
at  this  moment.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  whatever  in  the 
shape  of  a  written  constitution,  or  compact,  defining  the 
powers  of  the  ruler,  and  the  rights  of  the  subject. 

Second,  that  consolidation  has  greatly  advanced  in  the 
governments  of  that  country,  within  the  last  three  hundred 
years.  The  states  are  fewer  in  number,  and  larger  in  extent. 
This  change,  under  well  regulated  governments,  would  augur 
good  for  the  interests  of  truth  and  humanity  ;  but  under  a 
despotic  and  corrupt  dominion,  it  becomes  eminently  disas- 
trous to  both.  The  time  has  been  when  those  who  were  per- 
secuted for  righteousness'  sake,  in  one  part  of  Italy,  could 
find  refuge  in  some  other ;  for  the  states  and  principalities  of 
that  country  were  then  numerous,  often  hostile  to  each  other, 
and  very  unequally  submissive  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  It  is 
far  otherwise  at  present. 

Of  all  the  governments  of  Italy,  that  of  Tuscany  is  reported 
to  be  the  best.  The  reigning  grand  duke  has  the  reputation 
of  being  a  wise  and  humane  ruler.  He  is  a  man  of  unosten- 
tatious manners ;  and  is,  unquestionably,  the  most  popular 
prince  in  Italy.  He  is  greatly  beloved  by  his  people, 
and  seems  to  strive  to  challenge  their  affection  by  his  zeal 
in  promoting  their  welfare.  Possessed  of  large  private 
resources,  as  well  as  an  ample  and  honorable  maintenance 
from  the  state,  he  can  afford  to  patronize  the  arts,  and  foster 
genius.  But  if  the  government  of  Tuscany  is  more  tolerable 
than  that  of  the  other  states  of  Italy,  it  is  wholly  owing  to  the 
character  of  the  reigning  prince,  and  not  to  its  own  nature. 
Like  all  the  other  sovereigns  of  that  country,  the  grand  duke, 


POLITICAL   AND    SOCIAL    CONDITION.  195 

Leopold  II.,  is  perfectly  absolute.  That  he  is  disposed  to 
govern  his  people  with  kindness  and  justice  is  a  fact  in  which 
humanity  rejoices,  whilst  an  extensive  knowledge  of  mankind 
demands  better  guarantees  for  the  rectitude  of  government, 
than  the  dispositions  of  its  head. 

Next  to  Tuscany,  the  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy  are,  we 
believe,  the  best  governed.  It  may  be  that  the  yoke  is  hard 
to  bear ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment looks  well  after  the  material  interests  of  its  subjects 
in  that  country.  It  forbids,  indeed,  and  punishes  in  the 
severest  manner,  their  interference  with  politics,  and  trans- 
ports those  whom  it  suspects  of  desiring  revolution  to  the 
dungeons  of  Spielberg  in  Moravia ;  but  to  all  others  it  ex- 
tends the  protection  of  its  powerful  segis,  and  even  watches 
over  them,  it  is  maintained  by  its  friends,  with  a  paternal 
eye.  Whatever  may  be  the  wishes  of  the  present  emperor 
(and  we  have  never  heard  him  accused  of  being  cruel  in  his 
disposition)  or  of  his  very  able  prime  Minister,  Prince  Met- 
temich,  it  is  very  certain  that  the  subordinate  officers  of  the 
Austrian  government  in  Italy,  judicial  and  executive,  have 
displayed  a  severity  which  is  disreputable  to  any  civilized 
government  in  the  nineteenth  century.  We  shall  have, 
however,  to  speak,  in  another  part  of  this  work,  of  some 
recent  acts  of  the  emperor,  which  are  highly  honorable  to 
him  as  a  man  and  a  ruler,  as  well  as  to  those  who  counselled 
him. 

The  worst  governments  in  Italy  are,  confessedly,  those  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  the  Estates  of  the  Church,  Sardinia,  and 
Modena.  Even  where  all  are  bad,  there  are  usually  degrees 
of  badness ;  and  tyranny  itself  is  seldom  uniform  in  its  atro- 
ciousness.  But  it  would  be  really  difficult  to  say  in  which  of 
the  above-named  countries  the  people  are  most  effectually 
trodden  into  the  dust  by  the  iron  heel  of  despotism.  All  are 
priest-ridden  to  the  utmost  degree.     The  government  of  the 


196  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

pope  is  in  tlie  hands  entirely  of  ecclesiastics,  and  is  the  only 
one  in  Christendom  which  is  professedly  so.  And  surely  the 
world  is  not  likely  to  be  converted  to  the  belief  of  the  excel- 
lence of  such  a  form  of  dominion.  If  there  be  a  government 
on  earth  which  is  imbecile,  incapable,  and  oppressive,  it  is 
that  of  the  pope.  Nothing  flourishes  in  his  dominions  save 
beggary.  The  very  face  of  nature,  both  south  and  north  of 
the  Eternal  City,  bears  the  visible  impress  of  the  curse  of  the 
Almighty.  And  everywhere  throughout  the  papal  domin- 
ions, commerce  and  trade  stagnate,  the  people  groan  under 
intolerable  burdens,  and  ignorance  and  poverty  prevail 
among  the  lower  classes. 

The  government  of  Naples  is  less  inefficient  than  that  of 
Rome,  but  quite  as  onerous,  and  equally  detested.  Sardinia 
is  priest-ridden  almost  beyond  the  pope's  kingdom  itself, 
though  the  king,  it  is  believed,  left  to  himself,  would  be  dis- 
posed to  do  what  is  right.  But  as  to  Modena,  its  reigning 
duke  is,  probably,  personally  more  odious  than  any  other 
prince  in  all  Italy. 

Of  the  petty  rulers,  the  Duke  of  Lucca  is  tolerably  re- 
spected, though  his  subjects  are  far  from  being  well  satisfied. 
He  is,  we  believe,  a  humane  man,  and  disposed  to  promote 
the  best  interests  of  his  little  dominions  as  far  as  he  knows 
how.  As  to  the  Duchess  of  Parma,  Maria  Louisa,  she  has 
not  the  reputation  of  giving  herself  much  solicitude  respect- 
ing affairs  of  state.  In  the  embraces  of  two  husbands 
she  has  sought  consolation  for  the  loss  of  Napoleon ;  and  in 
the  midst  of  her  luxurious  pleasures  finds  safety  in  the  Aus- 
trian bayonets  of  her  brother,  which  surround  her. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  unfortunate  movements  in 
Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  in  1820,  and  those  in  Parma,  Mo- 
dena, the  Estates  of  the  Church,  and  the  kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  in  1831  and  1832,  did  much  to  rivet  the  chains 


POLITICAL   AND    SOCIAL    CONDITION.  197 

of  the  Italians.  And  however  much  they  may  feel  the 
galling  servitude  in  which  they  live,  there  is  not  the  least 
prospect  of  emancipation  until  France  shall  come  to  their 
aid. 

In  the  mean  while  restlessness  prevails  almost  everywhere. 
Secret  associations  ramify  throughout  the  whole  country. 
The  Giovanne  Italia  —  as  the  patriotic  band  of  those  who 
seek  the  deliverance  of  their  country  is  called  —  numbers 
many  thousands  of  members.  It  holds  correspondence  with 
exiled  compatriots,  who  reside  in  Switzerland,  France,  En- 
gland, and  other  lands,  and  impatiently  wait  for  the  day  of 
their  country's  redemption.  That  day  will  come ;  but  those 
who  desire  it  ought  to  know,  that  their  efforts  should  be  unre- 
mittingly directed  towards  doing  all  that  is  practicable,  be  it 
little  or  be  it  much,  for  the  moral  regeneration  of  the  nation, 
by  the  grand  means  which  God  has  appointed,  the  reading  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  the  preaching  of  the  pure  gospel. 

Such  is  the  severity  of  the  censorship  of  the  press  in  Italy, 
that  it  is  only  in  indirect  ways  that  the  grief  as  well  as  the  in- 
dignation of  the  oppressed  people  can  find  expression.  In  all 
periods  of  the  world,  the  enslaved  have  had  to  employ  alle- 
gory, fable,  and  apologue,  in  order  to  utter  those  unpalatable 
truths  which  they  dared  not  to  express  plainly.  Sometimes 
ancient  events  are  brought  forward  to  characterize  those  which 
are  modem,  and  provoke  to  the  needed  resistance.  Such  is 
the  course  which  is  pursued  at  present  by  the  enemies  of  des- 
potism in  Italy.  Niccolini  in  his  recent  tragedy,  entitled  Ar- 
naldo  da  Brescia,  depicts,  in  the  strongest  colors,  the  corruption 
and  profligacy  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers  by  which 
his  beautiful  country  is  desolated,  whilst  relating  the  heroic  and 
patriotic  conduct,  as  well  as  the  unfortunate  end,  of  one  who 
resisted  tyranny  unto  death  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  has 
executed  his  task  with  singular  ability.  Nor  will  his  vivid 
17* 


198  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

delineations  of  the  present  oppression  and  insolence  of  their 
spiritual  and  secular  tyrants,  though  he  professedly  writes  of 
what  occurred  six  hundred  years  ago,  fail  to  make  an  endur- 
ing impression  on  the  minds  of  his  numerous  readers. 

In  fact  the  resemblance  which,  in  some  respects,  the 
present  state  of  things  in  Italy  bears  to  that  which  existed  in 
the  twelfth  century,  is  in  the  highest  degree  striking.  Not 
only  does  the  same  vice  of  venality  and  the  same  depravation 
of  morals  exist  among  the  clergy  and  the  masses  of  the 
people  now  which  did  then,  but  there  is  the  same  union 
among  the  secular  and  spiritual  rulers  to  uphold  corruption, 
and  resist  all  attempts  at  reformation,  religious  or  political. 
The  bishops  and  cardinals  are  taken,  generally,  from  the 
families  of  the  rich  and  the  noble ;  and  when  they  are  not, 
they  are  soon  incorporated,  by  one  means  or  another,  into  the 
society  of  those  who  have  conspired  to  keep  the  people  in  a 
state  of  entire  subjection  to  their  spiritual  and  temporal 
rulers.  It  is  remarkable,  too,  that  the  emperors  of  Austria 
have  had,  in  our  day,  the  same  longing  desire  for  dominion 
in  Italy,  that  the  emperors  of  Germany  had  six  hundred 
years  ago.  And  the  reigning  Ferdinand  is  as  ready  to  extend 
his  paternal  regards  to  that  land  as  was  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa.  And  it  is  equally  true  that  the  pope,  whilst  he  feels 
his  need  of  Austrian  protection,  detests  it,  and  curses  the 
state  of  dependence  in  which  he  is  forced  to  live.  The  Aus- 
trian rule  is  as  much  abhorred  now  as  was  the  German  then. 
And  Italy,  if  she  has  in  our  day  her  Ghibelines,  or  friends  of 
the  Austrian  dominion,  has  also  her  Guelfs,  who  detest  it.  -^^ 

It  has  been  the  doom  of  Italy,  ever  since  the  downfall  of 


14  The  influence  of  Austria  is  as  great  in  Italy  in  our  times,  as  was  that  of  Ger- 
many in  the  middle  ages.  The  imperial  family  is  allied,  by  blood  or  by  marriage, 
to  almost  every  ruling  family  in  that  country,  as  any  one  may  see  who  will  take 
the  trouble  to  examine. 


POLITICAL    AND    SOCIAL    CONDITION.  199 

the  Roman  empire,  to  be  the  prey  of  the  foreigner.  And 
the  language  of  Filicaja  is  as  applicable  at  the  present  time, 
as  it  was  when  the  beautiful  sonnet  which  contains  it  was 
written  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

'  Italia!  oh  Italia!     Thou  whom  fate 

Gifted  -^^^th  mournful  beauty,  and  thereby 

Hast  the  sad  lot  of  infinite  misery 
Imprest  upon  thy  face,  unfortunate ! 
Would  thou  less  lovely  wert,  thy  strength  more  great ; 

That  strangers,  whom  the  bright  beams  of  thine  eye 

Seem  to  consume,  and  yet  thy  sword  defy, 
Should  love  thee  less,  else  fear  thy  powerful  state. 
That  from  the  Alps  such  toiTents  should  not  flow 

Of  armies ;  nor  the  flocks  of  Gallia  come 
To  drink  the  blood-stained  waters  of  the  Po ; 

Nor,  armed  with  a  stranger's  SAVord,  his  home 
Defend,  with  thine  o^vn  hand,  against  his  foe ; 

Ever  to  serve,  conquering  or  overcome.  ^^ 

The  translation  given  above  is  as  literal  as  possible. 
In  the  forty-second  and  forty-third  stanzas  of  the  Fourth 
Canto  of  Childe  Harold,  Lord  Byron  has  given  the  following 
beautiful,  though  very  free,  translation  of  this  celebrated 
sonnet. 


15 '  Italia,  Italia,  o  tu,  cui  feo  la  sorte 
Dono  infelice  di  bellezza,  ond  'hai 
Funesta  dota  d'  infiniti  guai, 
Che  in  fronte  scriui  per  gran  doglia  porte : 
Deh  fossi  tu  men  bella,  o  almen  piu  forte, 
Onde  assai  piu  ti  paventasse,  o  assai 
T'  amasse  men  chi  del  tuo  bello  a'  rai 
Par  che  si  slrugga,  e  pur  ti  sfida  a  morte  ? 
Che  giu  dall'  Alpi  non  vedrei  torrenti 
Scender  d'  armati,  ne  di  sangue  tinta 
Bever  1'  onda  del  Po  gallici  arraenti ; 
N^  te  vedrei  del  non  tuo  ferro  cinta 
Pugnar  col  braccio  di  straniere  genti, 
Per  servir  sempre,  o  vincitrice  o  vinta.' 


200  ITALY   SINCE   THE   REFORMATION. 

'  Italia!  oh  Italia!    Thou  who  hast 
The  fatal  gift  of  beauty,  which  became 
A  funeral  dower  of  present  woes  and  past, 
On  thy  sweet  brow  is  sorrow  ploughed  by  shame, 
And  annals  graved  in  characters  of  flame. 
O,  God!  that  thou  wert  in  thy  nakedness 
Less  lovely  or  more  powerful,  and  couldst  claim 
Thy  right,  and  awe  the  robbers  back,  who  press 

To  shed  thy  blood,  and  drink  the  tears  of  thy  distress. 

'  Then  might 'st  thou  more  appall  5  or,  less  desired, 
Be  homely  and  be  peaceful,  undeplored 
For  thy  destructive  charms ;  then,  still  untired, 
Would  not  be  seen  the  arme'd  torrents  poured 
Down  the  deep  Alps ;  nor  would  the  hostile  horde 
Of  many-nationed  spoilers  from  the  Po 
QuaiF  blood  and  water ;  nor  the  stranger's  sword 
Be  thy  sad  weapon  of  defence,  and,  so, 
Victor  or  vanqixished,  thou  the  slave  of  friend,  or  foe.' 

As  to  the  social  condition  of  the  masses  in  Italy,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  it  is  any  thing  else  than  prosperous  or  happy. 
The  restrictions  which  a  narrow-minded,  short-sighted  policy 
has  imposed  on  commerce,  both  domestic  and  foreign,  has 
prevented  the  inhabitants  of  the  large  cities  and  towns,  with 
few  exceptions,  from  having  the  means  of  growing  rich; 
whilst  the  farmers,  who  are  mostly  tenants,  and  generally 
cultivate  but  a  few  acres,  are  so  oppressed  with  excessive 
rents  and  taxes,  that  they  can  scarcely  do  more  than  support, 
even  with  the  most  extraordinary  frugality,  their  families. 
The  large  military  forces,  which  even  the  pettiest  states 
in  that  country  maintain,  together  with  the  great  number  of 
those  who  hold  civil  offices,  render  these  governments  op- 
pressive beyond  any  thing  of  which  we  have  a  conception.  '^ 


16  Even  the  Successor  of  the  Fisherman  has  a  standing  army  of  from  sixteen 
thousand  to  twenty-two  thousand  men,  according  to  circumstances,  of  whom  six 
thousand  are  Swiss ! 


SOCIAL    CONDITION.  201 

In  addition  to  all  this,  comes  tlie  expense  of  supporting  a  vast 
Church  establishment,  with  its  pope,  its  cardinals,  its  bishops, 
its  secular  and  regular  clergy,  its  seminaries  and  its  monastic 
institutions.  And  although  very  many  of  the  churches  and 
of  the  monasteries  are  richly  endowed,  yet  these  very  endow- 
ments are  so  much  wealth  withdrawn  from  the  possession  of 
the  people.  From  all  these  causes,  it  results  that  the  masses 
of  the  laboring  people  are  weighed  down  with  burdens  which 
they  are  not  able  to  bear,  and  kept  in  a  state  bordering  upon 
desperate  poverty.  That  such  a  state  of  things  is  eminently 
unfavorable  to  the  interests  of  true  religion  and  sound 
morality,  as  well  as  all  proper  happiness,  is  too  obvious  to 
require  an  attempt  to  prove. 

It  is  the  common  representation  of  travellers  who  visit 
Italy,  who  see  mostly  but  a  small  portion  of  it,  and  seldom 
take  any  thing  more  than  a  superficial  view  of  what  they  do 
see,  that  the  people  are  an  indolent,  improvident,  and  vicious 
race.  As  to  the  moral  character  and  condition  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  that  land,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  of  it  in  the 
next  chapter,  where  we  shall  discuss  the  subject  of  the  state 
of  religion.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  at  present  to  the 
charge  of  indolence  and  improvidence.  And  we  have  no 
hesitation  in  asserting,  that  the  Italians  are  not  the  lazy  herd 
they  that  have  been  accused  of  being.  On  the  contrary, 
taken  as  a  whole,  they  are  a  laborious,  frugal,  and  patient 
people.  Their  nature  leads  to  activity;  and  no  people 
in  the  world,  probably,  display  so  much  vivacity.  And, 
warm  as  the  climate  is,  in  some  parts,  it  is  manifest,  from  the 
position  of  the  country,  that  it  cannot  have  a  very  enervating 
atmosphere.  History  proves  that  it  had  no  such  effeminating 
influence  upon  the  ancient  Romans,  who  for  so  many  cen- 
turies governed  entirely  the  then  civilized  world.  The 
Italians  may,  especially  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the 
Estates  of  the   Church,  be  called  an  idle  people,  but  not  an 


202  ITALY    SINCE    THE   REFORMATION. 

indolent  one.  And  if  they  are  idle,  it  is  because  of  their 
having,  under  their  wretched  government,  so  little  induce- 
ment or  opportunity  to  work.  Even  the  Lazzaroni  of 
Naples  would  labor,  if  they  could  find  any  thing  to  do.  No 
men  are  more  willing,  or  more  prompt,  to  execute  a  commis- 
sion, or  perform  a  job,  when  one  presents  itself  to  them.  Of 
this  we  have  often  had  ocular  demonstration.  But,  alas,  in 
the  stagnation  of  exterior  commerce,  the  restrictions  on  inte- 
rior trade,  and  the  insupportable  burdens  which  rest  upon 
agriculture  and  every  species  of  handicraft,  who  can  wonder 
that  the  people  are  idle,  since,  indeed,  they  find  so  little  that 
they  can  do  ?  Certainly  no  philanthropist  can  visit  that 
country,  and  see  its  naturally  interesting,  fine-looking,  active, 
witty,  talented  population,  without  feelings  of  distress,  or 
without  offering  up  a  prayer  to  heaven,  that  the  days  may 
come  in  which  their  country  will  be  disenthralled  and  regen- 
erated ;  and  when  an  active,  well-rewarded,  and  all-pervading 
industry  will  shed  its  blessings  upon  every  part  of  that 
fairest  of  all  lands.  ^^ 


17  In  the  year  1840,  we  believe  it  was,  the  British  Parliament  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  make  certain  inquiries  in  relation  to  manufactures.  In  the  prosecution 
of  the  task  assigned  to  it,  that  committee  summoned  before  it  some  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished practical  manufacturers  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  testimony  of  these 
gentlemen,  on  many  points,  was  very  remarkable.  One  of  the  questions  propounded 
related  to  the  relative  quickness  for  comprehending  and  carrying  into  operation  the 
most  difficult  processes  in  the  arts,  which  workmen  of  the  various  nations  in  Europe 
display.  The  answer  was,  —  and  unanimously,  if  we  remember  rightly,  —  that 
the  Italians  were  decidedly  the  first  for  quickness  of  apprehension  and  skill  in 
application,  of  all ;  and  that  the  French  and  Spanish  were  next,  the  Swiss  next, 
the  Scotch  next,  the  Germans  next,  and  the  English  amongst  the  last. 


CHAPTER    n. 

STATE    OF   RELIGION   IN    ITALY    SINCE     THE    REFORMATION. 

We  have  stated,  in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  the  fact  that 
the  Reformed  doctrines,  which  for  a  few  years  spread  so 
rapidly  and  extensively  in  Italy,  were  at  length  extirpated. 
We  have  also  indicated  some  of  the  means  by  which  this 
disastrous  result  was  achieved.  But  we  propose  to  revert  to 
this  subject  for  the  sufficient  reason,  that  the  causes  which 
affected  the  suppression  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy  are  those 
which  have  retained  that  country  in  the  darkness  in  which  it 
has  ever  since  remained.     Let  us  look  at  them  in  detail :  — 

I.     Rome  at  length  awakes  to  a  sense  of  the  Danger  which 
menaces  her. 

The  Reformation  was  the  third  great  movement  which 
threatened  destruction  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  Age  after 
age  had  passed  away,  since  the  Bishop  of  the  '  City  on  the 
Seven  Hills'  had  begun  to  enforce  his  claims  to  universal 
dominion.  The  edifice,  which  spiritual  ambition  had  early 
begun  to  found,  gradually  arose.  Its  immense  walls  and 
lofty  towers,  reposing  on  foundations  which  it  had  required 
the  toil  of  many  successive  pontiffs  to  lay,  at  length  became 
so  elevated  as  to  be  visible  from  afar.  The  distant  bishops, 
as  well  as  the  most  powerful  princes,  had  found  it  vain  to 
resist  a  power  to  which  they  found  themselves  unequal ;  and 
two  centuries  and  more  had  passed  away  since  the  last  note 
of  opposition  had  ceased  to  be  heard.     But  at  length  Rome 


204  ITALY    SINCE    THE    KEFORMATION. 

found  that  the  seeds  of  what  she  was  pleased  to  denominate 
the  '  Paulician  heresy,'  springing  up  with  those  of  primitive 
Christianity,  were  covering  the  beautiful  country  lying  be- 
tween the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  embracing  the  rich  valleys 
of  the  Rhone,  and  the  Garonne,  the  plains  of  Narbonne  and 
Toulouse,  and  the  vine-clad  hills  of  the  Cevennes,  with  an 
abundant  harvest.  In  this  fine  region,  by  far  the  fairest  at 
that  time  in  all  Western  Europe,  where  civilization  and 
letters  had  made  incomparably  the  greatest  progress.  Truth, 
through  the  efforts  of  the  sect  of  Christians  called  the  Albi- 
genses,  ^^  had  silently  but  widely  spread  its  influences.  At 
length,  Rome  aroused  herself  to  the  task  of  extirpating,  for 
the  first  time,  heresy  within  her  own  bosom  by  means  of  war. 
A  series  of  crusades  was  commenced  against  these  excellent 
and  harmless  people,  who  had  committed  no  offence,  save 
that  —  which,  however,  was  unpardonable  • —  of  adhering  to 
the  primitive  Faith.  After  many  and  long  years,  the  arms 
of  Simon  de  Monfort,  and  the  kings  of  France,  Louis  VIII. 
and  Louis  IX.,  triumphed  over  the  forces  of  the  counts  of 
Toulouse  and  the  king  of  Arragon.  The  entire  country 
having  been  conquered  by  the  joint  armies  of  the  popes  and 
the  king  of  France,  and  made  a  constituent  part  of  that  king- 
dom, the  Inquisition,  which  had  been  invented  expressly  for 
this  task,  was  diligently  worked  by  the  followers  of  St. 
Dominic,  at  their  leisure,  but  with  an  unerring  effect,  to 
extirpate  the  remains  of  heresy.  ^^ 

18  There  has  been  no  little  dispute  among  the  learned  about  the  origin  of  the  name 
Albigeois,  or  Albigenses.  But  the  most  reasonable  opinion  seems  to  be,  that  it  is 
derived  from  Albi,  a  town  in  Languedoc,  where  those  who  professed  this  Faith 
were  very  numerous* 

19  It  is  not  often  that  the  young  warrior,  who  has  not  yet  become  accustomed  to 
the  taste  of  blood,  attains  to  perfection  in  the  very  outset  of  his  career  in  the  work 
of  human  butchery.  But  Rome  has  never  since  done  any  thing  which  has 
surpassed  her  bloody  cruelty  in  this  her  first  effort  to  extirpate  heresy  within 
her  own  bosom,  much  as  she  has  done  that  is  execrable.  If  any  man  doubt 
this,  let  him  read  the  admirable  work  of  the  late  learned  Sisraondi,  on  this  sub- 


EOME    A^YAKES.  205 

At  length  the  work  of  blood  was  finished ;  and,  after  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Albigenses  existed  no 
more,  save  in  the  valleys  in  Dauphiny  and  Piedmont, 
whither  those  who  had  escaped  death  fled,  to  find  protection 
and  sympathy  among  the  poor  Waldenses.  And  now  another 
long  night  settled  down  upon  the  Christian  world,  during 
which  i^apal  power  and  papal  arrogance  reached  their  apogee. 
The  emperors  of  Germany,  after  having  long  resisted  the 
encroachments  of  the  Church,  had  been  forced  to  succumb. 

But  at  length  the  patience  of  mankind  became  exhausted, 
and  a  reaction  against  the  despotism  of  Rome  began  to  set  in. 
Philip  IV.,  commonly  called  Philip  le  Bel,  of  France,  as  cold 
and  stern  a  despot  as  ever  sat  on  the  throne  of  that  country, 
resisted  successfully  the  arrogant  claims  of  Boniface  VIII., 
whom  his  general,  Nogaret,  seized,  maltreated,  and  even  im- 
prisoned, ' —  treatment  which  caused  the  enraged  pontiff*  to 
die  of  chagrin.  Then  came  the  '  Great  Schism  of  the  West.' 
For  seventy  years,  a  rival  line  of  popes,  at  Avignon,  in 
France,  anathematized  those  of  Rome,  and  were  in  turn 
themselves  excommunicated  by  those  of  the  Eternal  City. 
But  whilst  the  people  were  at  a  loss  which  of  the  two  worth- 
less priests  who  were  cursing  each  other,  to  acknowledge  as 
the  head  of  the  Church,  Wickliff"  began  to  make  his  voice 
heard  in  England.  And  soon  the  Truth  from  his  lips  was 
echoed  back  from  the  mountains  of  Bohemia  in  Germany. 
Thousands  upon  thousands  flocked  to  her  standard,  and  Rome 

ject.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  persons  were  put  to  death  in  the  most  shock- 
ing manner.  The  wanton  cruelty,  which  was  exhibited  at  the  capture  of  Be- 
ziers,  and  in  the  entire  destruction  of  its  60,000  inhabitants,  is  without  a  parallel. 
Both  Caiholics  and  '  heretics'  met  with  the  same  indiscriminating  fate.  When  the 
commanding  general  desired  to  know  how  his  soldiers  should  distinguish  between 
the  faithful  and  iheir  enemies,  so  as  to  spare  the  former  and  kill  the  latter,  upon  his 
taking  the  place,  the  legate  of  the  pope  replied  :  —  '  Kill  all ;  God  will  recognize  his 
own  in  the  day  of  judgment.'  The  soldiers  acted  upon  this  advice,  and  all,  with- 
out exception,  were  killed  !  Simon  de  Monforl,  and  Louis  VIII.,  themselves  met 
the  fate  they  so  richly  merited  ;  one  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  '  heretics'  in  1219, 
the  other  in  1226. 

18 


206  ITALY    SINCE    THE    IIEF0R3IATI0N. 

began  again  to  tremble,  as  she  had  done  one  hundred  and 
jQfty  years  before,  at  the  progress  of  the  new  heresy.  Again 
she  put  forth  her  energies,  and  again  Truth  was  compelled 
to  yield.  England  persecuted  the  Lollards,  and  the  Council 
of  Constance,  aided  in  the  enforcement  of  its  decisions  by  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  gave  a  fatal  blow  to  the  incipient 
Reformation.  John  Huss  and  Jerome,  of  Prague,  died  as 
martyrs,  and  Rome  triumphed  once  more.  And  now  another 
night  of  gloom  commenced,  and  prevailed  an  hundred  years, 
save  where  the  light  of  Truth  dimly  shone  in  the  rude  valleys 
of  Piedmont,  and  of  Bohemia.  During  this  period  of  quiet, 
the  popes  put  off  the  harness,  and  sought  repose  amid  the 
luxurious  enjoyments  of  the  palace,  indulging  in  the  pleasures 
of  taste,  of  the  fine  arts,  of  literature,  and  in  the  charms  of 
elegant  society,  of  accomplished  and  beautiful  women,  and  of 
scholars  of  extensive  and  polite  attainments. 

Again  was  the  voice  of  the  Reformer  heard,  and  Rome 
grew  pale  the  third  time.  Zuingle  in  Switzerland,  and 
Luther  in  Germany,  summoned  Christendom  to  throw  off  the 
chains  of  a  galling  superstition,  and  accept  the  freedom 
which  the  Son  of  God  bestows  upon  all  who  put  their  trust  in 
Him.  Nor  was  the  summons  issued  in  vain.  Those  who 
loved  the  Truth  in  every  land,  hastened  to  gather  around  her 
unfurled  banner.  The  oppressed  of  every  rank,  —  king, 
prince,  baron,  vassal,  —  hastened  thither  also.  For  men  were 
tired  of  the  yoke  of  Rome.  Great  was  the  progress  of 
emancipation.  Millions  of  men,  —  in  Germany,  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Livonia,  Holland,  England,  Scotland, 
Switzerland,  Hungary,  France,  —  embraced,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  The  Truth  spread, 
as  we  have  seen,  even  into  Italy,  and  invaded  the  Eternal 
City  itself. 

But  what  was  to  be  done  ?  For  awhile  Rome  stood  aghast. 
Indecision  marked  all  her  proceedings.    This  period,  however, 


KOME    AWAKES.  207 

was  not  long.  Her  whole  policy  must  be  entirely  changed. 
Her  luxurious  and  amiable  Leo  X.,  and  his  immediate 
successors,  were  not  the  men  to  meet  the  trying  exigency  of 
the  times.  Hearts  of  sterner  mould,  and  hands  of  greater 
strength,  were  imperatively  demanded.  No  weak,  vacillating, 
cowardly  priest  was  worthy  to  sit  at  the  helm  and  guide 
the  shattered  bark  of  St.  Peter.  Men  of  an  iron  energy 
were  required  for  the  chair  of  the  Fisherman,  during  this 
tempestuous  period.  And  such  a  man  was  found  in  the  per- 
son of  Gian  Pietro  Caraffa,  the  Theatine  ^  monk,  of  whom 
we  have  already  spoken,  and  who  ascended  the  papal  throne 
under  the  name  of  Paul  the  Fourth.  Caraffa  was  every  way 
the  man  for  the  occasion.  The  glorious  Reformation  was 
triumphing  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  threatened  even  to 
spread  extensively  in  the  south.  There  was  no  time  to  be 
lost  in  choosing  well-adapted  measures  to  check  it,  and  their 
application  must  be  prompt.  These  measures  must  be  ade- 
quate to  the  emergency,  and  carried  into  effect  with  no  falter- 
ing hand.  A  great  reformation  in  doctrine  was  going  on  in 
the  north ;  a  great  reformation  in  discipline  and  manners 
must  go  on  in  the  south,  or  all  would  be  lost.  Caraffa  set  the 
example.  He  lived  like  a  hermit  in  the  palace  on  the 
Quirinal  Hill.  Neither  the  allurements  of  literature  and 
science,  nor  the  pleasures  of  elegant  society  could  divert  his 
mind  from  attempting  to  save  the  almost  half-destroyed 
Church.     New  life   was   infused   into   all   the  old  religious 

20  The  Theatines  are  a  religious  order  of  regular  priests,  founded  in  1524,  by  this 
same  Caraffa,  who  was  bishop  of  Chieti  (anciently  Theate),  whence  their  name. 
The  members  of  this  order,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  monastic  vows,  (of  celibacy, 
poverty,  etc.)  bound  themselves  to  preach  against  heretics,  to  take  charge  of  the 
cure  of  souls,  to  attend  the  sick  and  criminals,  and  to  trust  entirely  to  Providence 
for  their  support.  They  engaged  to  own  no  property,  and  not  even  to  collect 
alms,  but  to  depend  upon  the  voluntary  gifts  of  the  pious.  They  were  an  order 
of  preaching  monks,  and  soon  obtained  great  repute.  They  are,  even  now, 
numerous  in  Italy,  and  particularly  Naples,  and  are  to  be  found  in  other  coun- 
tries. They  rendered  immense  service  to  the  pope  in  laboring  to  suppress  the 
Reformation. 


208  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

orders,  the  Benedictines,  the  Aiigustinians,  the  Dominicans, 
the  Franciscans,  etc.  etc. 

II.      The  old  Religious    Orders  purified  and  enlarged,  and 
new  ones  created. 

All  the  older  orders  had  lost  much  of  their  primitive  sim- 
plicity and  efficiency.  Many  of  them  had  numerous  monas- 
teries, churches,  and  members.  Wealth  had  flowed  in  upon 
them  from  the  coffers  of  rich  devotees,  many  of  whom, 
after  a  life  of  sinful  indulgence,  were  quite  willing  when  death 
approached,  to  settle  the  claims  of  heaven  by  liberal  bequests 
to  found  churches,  endow  monasteries,  and  otherwise  increase 
the  grandeur  and  the  riches  of  the  Spouse  of  Christ.  The 
admission  of  lay-brothers  into  the  monasteries,  whilst  it  formed 
a  link  which  connects  them  more  directly  with  the  world, 
unquestionably  introduced  into  them  more  extensively  the 
spirit  of  the  world.  Every  where  discipline  had  become 
relaxed,  both  in  the  monasteries  and  the  convents.  ^^  A 
return  to  the  strictness  of  former  discipline  and  manners  was 
eminently  necessary,  before  the  regular  clergy,  with  the  cor- 
responding female  orders,  could  be  effective  in  resisting  the 
widely-spreading  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Reformation. 
Paul  IV.,  and  his  immediate  successor,  Pius  V.,  were  just  the 
men  to  bring  this  about.  The  former  brought  to  the  papal 
chair  all  the  zeal  which  he  possessed  when  he  entered  the 
monastery  as  a  Theatine  monk.  The  latter  was  capable  of 
the  severest  austerities,  both  for  the  sake  of  his  own  soul,  and 
as  an  example  to  the  faithful.  Both  could  walk  barefooted 
in  a  procession  through  the  streets  of  Rome.  Both  com- 
plained that  their  duties  as  chiefs  of  the  Church  left  them  so 
little  time  for  the  cultivation  of  personal  piety.     And  both 

21  AVe  here  use  the  word  monastery  to  designate  an  establishment  of  monks,  and 
the  word  convent  to  denote  oneof  nuns  — a  distinction  which  is  not  always  made  in 
the  use  of  these  words. 


RELIGIOUS    ORDERS.  209 

set  the  most  edifying  examples  of  charity,  humility,  and 
forgiveness  of  injuries  ;  whilst  they  maintained  the  authority 
of  the  Holy  See,  and  the  unadulterated  doctrines  of  the 
Church,  with  an  undaunted  courage.  They  possessed  the 
spirit  and  character  of  Dunstan  and  Becket,  and  were  but 
little  inferior  in  zeal,  for  the  prerogatives  of  Rome,  to  Hilde- 
brand  himself.  Gregory  XIII.  was  emulous  of  the  severe 
virtues  of  his  predecessor,  Pius  Y.,  and  carried  on  the  reform 
which  he  and  Paul  IV.  had  commenced.  Nor  were  these 
efforts  made  in  vain.  The  change,  which  began  in  Rome, 
was  felt  in  its  vivifying  and  reforming  influence  to  the  re- 
motest parts  of  the  Roman  Catholic  world. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  Theatines,  who  were  an  order 
created  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  deficiencies  of  the 
secular  or  parochial  clergy.  They  were  a  sort  of  irregular 
corps  of  cavalry,  bound  to  appear  on  the  spots  where  they 
were  the  most  needed.  As  they  were  not  under  the  control 
of  the  bishops,  but  were  bound  to  go  whithersoever  their 
chief  might  send  them,  they  fought  against  the  common  foe 
with  singular  freedom  from  aU  the  embarrassing  influences 
which  the  parish  clergy  might  feel  in  being  subject  to  the 
supervision  of  their  spiritual  lords. 

The  order  of  the  Capuchins  was  founded  in  the  year  1528, 
by  one  Matteo  di  Bassi.  They  are  a  branch  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, and  were  for  a  long  time  considered  the  strictest  of 
all  the  orders.  Many  of  the  members  of  this  order  embraced 
the  Reformed  doctrine  in  Italy,  as  we  have  elsewhere  stated. 
For  a  long  period,  this  order  was  reputed  to  possess  a  greater 
number  of  serious  persons,  who  were  disposed  to  read  and 
inquire,  than  any  other.  It  was  this  which  rendered  them 
so  accessible  to  the  Truth.  Like  all  the  other  branches  of 
what  are  called  the  Regular  clergy,  they  are  mendicants,  and 
wear  a  coarse  woollen  frock,  with  a  cord  around  the  waist, 
18* 


210  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

trom  wliicli  a  knotted  rope  is  suspended,  as  a  scourge,  which 
they  often  use  upon  their  persons  by  way  of  penance. 

The  more  we  study  the  entire  economy  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic hierarchy,  the  more  we  are  amazed  at  the  vastness  of  it,  as 
a  whole,  and  at  the  minute  and  singular  adaptation  of  its  parts. 
Certainly,  it  is  the  master-piece  of  human  —  we  might  say,  in 
an  evil  sense,  of  superhuman  —  ingenuity.  It  is  so  contrived 
that  it  furnishes  scope  for  every  passion  by  which  mankind 
are  impelled  to  great  actions,  and  a  field  in  which  every  man, 
be  his  talents  or  his  dispositions  what  they  may,  can  find 
employment.  It  has  bishopricks,  patriarchates,  generalships 
of  orders,  and  the  See  of  St.  Peter,  to  offer  to  the  ambition  of 
those  Avho  would  be  great ;  and  it  renders  even  fanaticism 
one  of  its  most  efficient  auxiliaries,  by  employing  it,  incarnate 
in  the  shape  of  a  monk  or  a  nun,  upon  some  desperate 
errand  of  mercy,  or  of  conquest  for  the  Church.  Not  content 
with  the  labors  of  the  ordinary  clergy,  employed  in  the  usual 
duties  of  the  parish  ministry,  it  early  began  to  render  tribu- 
tary the  monastic  life,  which  from  the  second  and  third 
centuries  had  been  considered  by  many  to  be  the  highest 
style  of  piety.  Instead  of  allowing  such  deluded  devotees  to 
pursue  their  solitary  life  in  a  wholly  useless  manner,  it  organ- 
ized them,  at  an  early  period,  into  companies,  required  them 
to  live  together,  and  found  something  for  them  to  do.  As  age 
after  age  rolled  away,  the  system  was  more  and  more  im- 
proved, until  it  attained  what  to  many  eyes  appeared  to  be 
perfection  itself.  In  addition  to  its  vast  army  of  stationed 
priests,  whose  functions  were  those  of  a  parish  or  settled  and 
defined  ministry,  under  the  government  of  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, Rome  had  now  another  force,  equally  numerous, 
composed  of  various  orders  of  monks,  Avith  what  may  be 
called  corresponding  orders  of  nuns,  organized  in  the  most 
thorough  manner,  and  not  supported  from  the  ordinary 
revenues  of  the   Church,  but  by  gifts  and  bequests  of  the 


RELIGIOUS    ORDERS.  211 

pious,  for  the  purpose  of  doing  a  great  variety  of  work  wliich 
the  settled  clergy  had  neither  the  time  nor  the  fitness  to  per- 
form. In  order  that  they  might  be  as  free  as  possible  for  the 
fulfilment  of  their  various  functions,  the  monastic  orders  were 
ultimately  emancipated  from  all  episcopal  supervision,  and 
placed  under  the  control  of  superiors  and  generals,  who  had 
power  to  enforce  all  proper  obedience,  and  direct  every  neces- 
sary movement.  Over  the  wdiole  vast  host,  embracing  the 
regular  and  irregular  forces,  the  pope  reigned  supreme,  the 
centre  of  the  whole  system,  —  the  sun  around  w^hom  both  the 
comparatively  stationary  planets,  and  the  apparently  lawless, 
shooting  comets,  revolved,  —  the  source  of  union  and  vitahty, 
and  wielding  a  thousand-fold  greater  influence  over  mankind 
than  was  ever  possessed  by  the  proudest  of  the  Cesars. 
What  a  system !  Never  has  the  world  seen  any  dominion 
which  can  be  compared  with  it. 

But  long-continued  peace  will  cause  a  relaxation  of  disci- 
pline in  the  best  appointed  armies,  and  permanent  possession 
of  the  field  of  battle  will  occasion  want  of  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  the  greatest  generals.  So  when  the  first  notes  of  the 
third,  and  of  all  the  most  desperate,  onset  upon  Rome  were 
heard  rolling  over  the  plains  of  Germany,  and  reechoed  from 
the  mountains  of  Switzerland,  she  was  found  almost  asleep. 
Her  chief  was  reposing,  hke  Samson  of  old,  in  the  embraces 
of  another  Dehlah,  and  her  secular  clergy,  in  all  their  grada- 
tions, and  her  friars  in  all  their  orders  and  branches,  had 
grown  worldly,  unvigilant,  and  unfaithful.  And  although 
Leo  X.  acted  like  the  Nazarite  when  shorn  of  his  locks,  yet 
Paul  IV.  showed  that  the  ancient  energy  of  Rome  had  re- 
turned, and  tlireatened  to  overwhelm  in  ruin  those  who  had 
attacked  her. 

A  new  vigor  was  felt  everywhere.  Able  and  zealous 
prelates  and  priests  were  stationed  at  the  most  exposed  points 
in   the  wide  empire  of  Romanism,  whilst  the  ancient  mo- 


212  ITALY    SINCE    THE   REFORMATION. 

nastic  orders  were  resuscitated  and  enlarged.  Let  us  bestow 
a  cursory  notice  on  some  of  them. 

1.  And  first,  we  will  speak  of  the  Benedictines.  This 
order  was  originated  by  St.  Benedict  of  Norcia,  ^^  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixth  century,  who  drew  up  a  regular  code  of  rules 
for  the  monastery  on  Monte  Cassino,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Naples,  of  which  he  was  chief  and  founder.  These  rules 
were  gradually  adopted  by  all  the  western  monks,  and  mo- 
nasteries were  exclusively  formed  upon  the  same  model.  It 
jWas  in  this  way  that  these  establishments  grew  up,  and  the 
monks  were  brought  into  the  practice  of  living  together, 
subject  to  a  common  discipline. 

From  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  century,  it  may  be  said  that 
all  the  monks  in  the  Western,  or  Latin  church  belonged  to 
the  order  of  the  Benedictines,  not  because  they  were  asso- 
ciated in  a  vast  organization  and  placed  under  the  control  of  a 
general,  or  common  head,  but  because  the  rules  of  St.  Bene- 
dict of  Norcia,  were  adopted  in  them  all.  Li  the  earlier 
portion  of  this  period,  the  regulations  of  the  monasteries  and 
the  dress  of  the  monks  were  various  in  many  particulars. 
But,  ultimately,  great  uniformity,  in  all  respects,  gained 
ground  among  them.  During  all  this  time  the  monasteries 
were  subject  to  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  bishops 
within  whose  diocesses  they  were  established.  Various 
branches  of  this  order  attained,  from  time  to  time,  great 
celebrity.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Cluniacs, 
who  derived  their  name  from  Clugny  in  Burgundy,  where  a 
monastery  was  founded  in  the  year  910.  This  branch  of  the 
Benedictines  had,  at  one  time,  no  less  than  two  thousand 
monasteries.  After  the  eleventh  century  arose  various  other 
branches,  or  orders,  out  of  the  old  Benedictine  stock,  distin- 


22  Norcia  is  a  town  in   Spoleto,  a  district  in  the    Estates  of  the    Church.   St. 
Benedict,  of  Norcia,  was  born  in  480. 


RELIGIOUS    ORDERS.  213 

guislied  from  each  other  bj  peculiarities  of  dress,  and  partic- 
ular regulations,  but  all  formed  according  to  the  rules  of  St. 
Benedict  of  ]S^orcia,  —  such  as  the  Camaldulians,  the  IMonks 
of  Vallombrosa,  the  Sjlvestrians,  the  Grandimontenses,  the 
Carthusians,  the  Coelestines,  the  Cistercians,  Bernardines, 
Feuillans,  the  Recollects,  the  Trappists,  and  the  Monks  of 
Fontevraud.  ^ 

Some  of  the  monasteries  of  the  Benedictines  have  enjoyed 
a  gi'eat  celebrity,  such  as  those  of  Monte  Cassino  (the  mother 
of  all),  Monte  Vergine,  Monte  Oliveto,  Valladolid,  Montser- 
rat,  Hirschau,  Fulda,  and  Moelk.  The  last-named  stands  on 
the  Danube,  above  Vienna,  and  is  very  magnificent.  It  had, 
for  a  long  time,  vast  possessions,  but  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment has  appropriated  the  greater  part  of  them  to  secular 
uses,  as  it  has  done  those  of  many  others  within  its  dominion. 
Many  of  the  nunneries  of  this  order,  both  in  Austria  and 
other  countries,  are  reserved  for  the  nobility,  because  places 
in  them  are  so  lucrative.  So  also  in  Sicily,  the  Benedictines 
are,  for  the  most  part,  the  younger  sons  of  distinguished 
families. 

The  discipline  in  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  our  times 
is  greatly  relaxed  from  what  it  used  to  be,  and  yet  it  never 
was  excessively  severe.  St.  Benedict  seemed  to  aim  at 
making  the  monks  as  useful  as  possible.  He  therefore  pre- 
scribed, in  addition  to  the  work  of  God,  —  as  he  termed 
prayer  and  the  reading  of  religious  writings,  —  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  youth  in  the  elements  of  a  useful  education,  in  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  in  the  most  necessary  mechanic 

23  Of  all  the  branches  of  the  Benedictines,  the  order  of  Fontevraud  was  the  most 
remarkable.  It  was  founded  in  a  beautiful  valley  of  that  name,  in  Poitou,  France, 
in  the  year  1099,  by  one  Robert  d'Arbrissel.  In  this  order  the  nuns  were  the  supe- 
riors, and  ihetnonks  subject  to  them!  This  order  had  fifty-seven  monasteries  in 
France,  which  were  all  suppressed  at  the  Revolution. 


214  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

arts.  ^  The  aged  and  infirm  monks,  who  were  capable,  were 
formed  into  a  class  (ordo  scriptorius)  and  obliged  to  copy 
manuscripts.  In  this  way  the  Benedictines  contributed  to 
preserve  the  literary  remains  of  antiquity  from  ruin;  for 
although  their  founder  had  in  view  only  the  copying  of 
religious  writings,  yet  the  practice  was  afterwards  extended 
to  classical  works  of  every  kind.  To  this  order,  more  than 
to  all  others,  the  learned  world  is  indebted  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  vast  literary  treasures.  In  fact,  the  Benedictine 
monasteries  were,  in  the  middle  ages,  often  asylums  in  which 
science  took  refuge  and  found  protection,  whilst  barbarism 
and  vandalism  were  reigning  all  around. 

2.  Next  in  the  order  of  time,  as  well  as  in  usefulness, 
were  the  Augustinians,  most  of  whose  branches  arose  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  They  took  the  name  of 
the  renowned  father  of  the  Church,  not  because  he  was  their 
founder,  but  because  they  adopted  mainly  the  rules  which  he 
is  reputed  to  have  given  his  clergy.  Augustine  united  the 
clergy  of  his  diocess  of  Hippo  in  associations  for  spiritual 
improvement,  but  never  had  an  idea  of  founding  an  order  of 
monks.  His  rules  were  only  for  the  clergy,  and  were  not 
deemed  applicable  to  monks,  who  were  not  considered  to  be 
members  of  the  clerical  profession  before  the  eighth  century. 
.  Ultimately,  both  by  public  opinion  and  by  buHs  of  the  popes, 
the  monks  were  not  only  made  clergymen,  but  ranked  supe- 
rior to  the  secular  clergy  in  sanctity.  On  this  account  the 
secular  clergy  often  became  monks,  or  formed  themselves 
into  a  species  of  monastic  associations,  and  bound  themselves 
by  the  canonical  vows,  or  rules  of  the  monastic  institutions. 
Of  this  description  are  the  canons  regular,  whose  constitution 
was  formed  on  the  rules  of  St.  Augustine.     And  all  the 


24  AH  the  monastic  orders  required  its  members  to  take  the  three  vows  of  chastity, 
poverty,  and  obedience.    To  these,  some  orders  added  other  vows  or  engagements. 


RELIGIOUS    ORDERS.  215 

branches  of  the  Aiigustinians,  such  as  the  Praemonstratenses, 
Augiistines,  Servites,  Hieronjmites,  Jesuates,  Brigittins,  are 
regular  orders,  living  also  according  to  these  rules.  From 
the  nature  of  their  constitution,  the  Augustinians  were  a  sort 
of  mongrel  order,  its  members  belonging  to  the  regular 
clergy,  and  yet  performing  the  functions  of  the  secular. 
Before  the  Reformation,  they  had  about  two  thousand  monas- 
teries, containing  thirty  thousand  monks,  and  also  three 
hundred  nunneries. 

3.  The  order  of '  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,'  or  the  Car- 
melites. This  order  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century,  by  Berthold  of  Calabria,  who  formed  an 
association  of  pilgrims  on  Mount  Carmel.  A  papal  bull  con- 
firmed the  enterprise  in  the  year  1224.  Driven  from  Mount 
Carmel  by  the  Saracens,  some  twenty-five  years  afterwards, 
the  Carmelites  scattered  themselves  over  AVestern  Europe. 
Ultimately  their  number  became  considerable.  But  notwith- 
standing their  boast,  that  their  order  is  the  most  ancient  of 
all,  and  that  it  embraced  the  prophet  Elias,  all  the  prophets 
and  holy  men  of  antiquity,  and  the  Saviour  himself,  their 
order  has  never  enjoyed  the  very  highest  repute.  ^^  The 
members  of  it  are,  by  its  constitution,  so  utterly  useless  to 
society,  that  few  enlightened  governments  have  been  willing 
to  give  much  countenance  to  the  order.  It  has  numerous 
convents  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  South  America,  and  some 
in  Italy,  and  other  countries. 

4.  The  Dominicans.  This  order  was  founded  at  Tou- 
louse, in  the  year  1215,  by  Dominic.  At  first  they  were 
governed  by  the  rules  of  St.  Augustine,  and  were  an  order  of 
preaching  friars,  formed,  emphatically,  to  preach  against 
heresy.  They  soon  gave  proof  of  their  zeal  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  in  the  earnestness  with  which  they  labored 

25  The  Carmelites  also  claim  Pythagoras,  and  the  Druids  of  Gaul,  as  members  of 
their  order,  and  certainly  with  as  much  propriety  as  they  do  Elijah. 


216  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

to  extirpate  the  Albigenses.  For  this  service  they  received 
the  privileges  of  a  mendicant  order,  and  soon  afterwards 
increased  so  rapidly,  that  they  became  numerous  in  all  parts 
of  the  Christian  world.  Their  order  had  great  efficiency  from 
the  monarchical  unity  of  its  constitution,  and  the  complete 
subjection  of  its  members  to  a  general.  As  they  devoted 
themselves  to  preaching,  and  also  to  the  cultivation  of  learn- 
ing, they  soon  acquired  a  vast  influence  in  Church  and  State. 
But  they  had  implacable  enemies  and  formidable  rivals  in 
the  Franciscans.  The  Dominicans  could  boast  of  having 
some  great  men  in  their  order,  among  whom  we  may  men- 
tion Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  Their  zeal  for 
the  propagation  of  the  Catholic  religion,  in  South  America 
and  elsewhere,  was  still  further  rewarded  by  their  being  put 
in  possession  of  the  Liquisition,  and  also  by  being  intrusted, 
in  the  year  1620,  with  the  censorship  of  books  at  Rome.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  they  have  labored  hard  to  approve 
themselves  worthy  of  the  high  trust  which  the  popes  have 
reposed  in  them.  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  they 
flourish  at  present  any  where,  save  in  Sicily,  Spain,  Portugal, 
South  America,  and  Mexico.  They  have  been  gaining 
ground  of  late  in  Italy,  we  believe.  ^ 

5.  The  Franciscans.  This  order  was  founded  in  1208,  by 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  a  town  in  Umbria,  in  Italy.  It  was 
formed  upon  the  most  rigid  principles  of  poverty.  It  was 
intended  by  its  founder  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  secu- 
lar clergy,  and  especially  to  look  after  the  poor  and  neg- 
lected. From  the  first  it  was  in  great  favor  with  the  popes, 
who  granted  it  many  privileges.     Such  was  the  rapidity  of 


26  The  Dominicans  are  often  called  Jacobins,  in  France,  because  they  had  a  fa- 
mous convent  in  Paris,  in  the  Rue  ;S^^  Jacques  (or  St.  James,  Jacobus,  in  Latin).  The 
poliiical  party  which  bore  the  name  of  Jacobins  was  so  called  from  holding  their 
meetings  in  this  same  old  convent,  which  was  then  deserted  by  its  former  occu- 
pants.   It  has  since  been  demohshed. 


RELIGIOUS    ORDERS.  217 

its  growth,  that  it  soon  had  several  thousands  of  convents  and 
many  nunneries.  And  although  learning  was  almost  des- 
pised by  this  order,  yet  it  had,  from  time  to  time,  some  very 
distinguished  scholars,  among  whom  we  may  mention  Bona- 
ventura,  Alexander  de  Hales,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Roger  Bacon. 
Several  popes  have  been  taken  from  it. 

The  Franciscans  were  called  by  their  founder,  Fratres 
Mitiores,  ^  or  Minorites,  in  token  of  humility.  One  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  this  order  is  that  of  the  Obser- 
vantines,  organized  in  1517  by  Leo  X.,  out  of  three  classes 
of  dissenters  from  the  old  stock.  The  Capuchins  are  another 
branch,  and  the  most  rigid  of  all.  The  Cordeliers,  in 
France,  are  another  branch.  The  Alcantarines,  in  Spain 
and  Portugal,  are  still  another.  The  3Iimms^  may  be 
called  another  branch  also  of  the  Franciscans.  They  were 
founded  by  St.  Francis  of  Paula,  in  Calabria,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  They  soon  became  numerous.  The  basis  of  their 
order  was  humility,  and  its  motto  charity.  To  the  three 
usual  vows,  Francis  of  Paula  gave  his  followers  a  fourth, 
that  of  keeping  Lent  during  the  whole  year.  So  rigid  were 
his  ideas  on  this  subject,  that  the  members  of  his  communities 
were  required  to  abstain  not  only  from  eggs,  but  from  milk, 
and  every  article  of  food  of  which  milk  is  an  ingredient. 

Such  is  the  brief  notice  which  our  limits  allow  us  to  take 
of  the  monastic  orders  that  existed  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Reformation.  Lito  all  these  establishments  Rome  began 
to  infuse  new  vigor,  what  time  she  roused  herself  up  to  resist 
in  earnest  the  encroachments  which  Truth  was  making  upon 
her  wide  domains.  New  life  was  felt  in  all  the  old  and 
decaying  branches  of  the  five  great  trunks,  or  orders,  of  the 
monastic  bodies.     This  was  especially  true  of  the  four  famous 

27  Younger  Brethren. 

28  Derived  from  the  Latin  word  minimi,  which  signifies  least  of  all. 

19 


218  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

mendicant  orders,  the  Franciscans,  the  Dominicans,  the  Car- 
melites, and  the  Augustinians. 

In  addition  to  all  this,  new  branches  were  foimed.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  Theatines  and  the  Capuchins ;  but 
we  must  not  fail  to  mention  also  the  Bamabites,  the  Somas- 
kians,  the  Priests  and  Fathers  of  the  Oratory,  '^  the  Lazar- 
ists,  Bartholomaeans,  Piarists,  and  the  Brethren  of  Mercy. 

Surely,  by  this  time  the  reader  will  think  that  the  hosts  of 
the  pope  must  have  been  numerous  and  large  enough  to 
overwhelm  the  Reformation,  let  it  break  out  where  it  might. 
But  not  so  did  his  Holiness  think.  One  more  order  was  still 
needed,  before  the  organization  of  his  forces  could  be  com- 
plete— the  Jesuits.  On  this,  the  most  remarkable  of  all, 
we  must  bestow  a  special  notice. 

Nothing  could  be  better  adapted  to  the  exigency  in  which 
Rome  found  herself,  in  her  conflict  with  Protestantism,  than 
the  Order  of  the  Jesuits.  It  filled  up  a  gap  which,  till  its 
institution,  had  remained  unprovided  for.  The  secular 
clergy,  under  the  control  of  bishops  and  archbishops,  had  the 
care  of  the  regular  parishes.  It  was  their  duty  to  carry  on 
the  services  of  the  churches  on  the  sabbaths,  the  festivals,  or 
saints'  days,  which  might  consist  of  the  reading  of  the  liturgy, 
or  the  preaching  of  discourses,  accompanied  with  the  pre- 
scribed prayers.  In  addition  to  this,  there  was  the  saying  of 
masses  for  the  dead,  the  instruction  of  the  children  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church,  the  visiting  of  the  sick,  and  the 
hearing  of  the  confessions  of  the  people,  etc.  etc.  —  a  work 
various  in  its  nature,  and  often  very  laborious.  It  is  true, 
that  as  to  preaching,  but  few,  comparatively,  of  the  secular 
clergy  were  able  to  do  much  in  that  way,  on  account  of  their 
ignorance;  nor  did  they  attempt  it  as  a  general  practice, 

29  The  'Priests  and  Fathers  of  the  Oratory'  were  a  French  order.  It  became 
famous  because  of  the  eloquence  of  some  of  its  members,  among  whom  Massillon 
stands  preeminent. 


THE    ORDER    OF    JESUS.  219 

especially  in  the  villages  and  country  parishes,  save  during 
Lent,  and  on  other  special  occasions. 

Id  aid  of  the  parish  priests,  and  by  way  of  working  out  the 
complement  of  their  labors  and  their  supervision  of  the 
people,  the  various  monastic  orders,  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  were  organized.  And  as  the  monks  were,  for  the 
most  part,  not  under  the  control  of  the  bishops,  but  of  their 
superiors  and  generals,  and  they  of  the  pope,  their  action  was 
as  free  as  they  could  desire.  They  could  visit  the  sick  and 
the  indigent,  confess  the  people,  instruct  the  youth,  and  per- 
form all  other  clerical  functions  in  the  localities  and  districts 
in  which  they  resided.  And  as  the  number  of  the  monks 
of  various  orders,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Reformation, 
must  have  far  exceeded  one  hundred  thousand,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  novices,  and  of  the  associated  laymen,  who  formed  the 
connecting  link  wliich  united  the  orders  with  society  at  large, 
and  of  the  sisters,  who  cooperated  in  various  ways,  it  is  mani- 
fest, that  the  spiritual  forces  of  Rome  were  numerous,  well 
appointed,  and  well  arranged.  It  must  have  been  difficult 
for  heresy  to  gain  a  foothold  anywhere,  no  matter  how 
obscure  the  place,  without  being  promptly  detected,  and  the 
proper  measures  taken  for  its  expulsion. 

But  the  times  were  changing.  Knowledge  was  advancing 
rapidly  in  all  civilized  countries.  Science  was  making 
astounding  discoveries.  The  minds  of  men  were  waking  up. 
The  press  was  scattering  the  newly  discovered  truths,  and 
education  was  extending,  even  among  the  lowest  classes  of 
society,  the  capacity  for  receiving  them.  Most  of  the  monks 
were  proverbially  ignorant,  as  well  as  the  priests.  The 
Dominicans  were  morose,  stern,  suspicious,  and  forbidding  in 
their  appearance  and  manners ;  and  the  Franciscans  were 
coarse,  rude,  vulgar,  and  eminently  repulsive.  The  times 
demanded  more  knowledge  in  those  who  would  be  the  re- 


220  ITALY    SINCE    THE   REFORMATION. 

ligious  guides  of  the  people,  as  well  as  more  of  the  dress  and 
address  of  gentlemen. 

But  an  enthusiastic  Spaniard  is  raised  up  to  be  founder  of 
ail  order  which  should  supply  what  was  wanting  in  the 
economy  of  Rome.  Born  of  noble  parents,  distinguished  by 
his  prowess  and  his  feats  in  arms,  his  fervid  imagination 
looked  forward  to  the  time  when  he  should  lay  at  the  feet  of 
a  dulcinea,  who  was  '  no  countess,  no  duchess,  but  one  of  far 
higher  station,'  the  keys  of  Moorish  castles,  and  the  proud 
trophies  won  from  Asiatic  kings !  But  a  wound  received  at 
the  siege  of  Pampeluna  rendered  him  a  cripple  for  life,  and 
destroyed  all  his  knightly  hopes.  Whilst  lying  sick  in  the 
hospital,  the  perusal  of  a  volume  of  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
turned  the  current  of  his  soul  into  an  entirely  new  channel. 
He  determines  to  be  a  knight  in  the  service  of  the  Spouse  of 
Christ.  He  retires  into  solitude,  fasts,  prays,  and  resolves  to 
live  a  life  of  extremest  poverty  and  self-denial ;  has  a  vision 
of  the  Virgin  and  infant  Son,  who  imparts  to  him  the  perfect 
virtue  of  continence ;  sees  Jesus  and  Satan  contending  for 
this  world,  and  resolves  to  found  a  society  to  maintain  the 
cause  of  the  Saviour.  No  dangers,  no  trials,  can  prevent 
his  visiting  Jerusalem.  He  returns,  betakes  himself  to  books, 
and  visits  Paris  to  prosecute  his  studies  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  that  city.  He  there  meets  with  Lainez,  Salmeron, 
Rodriguez,  Bovadilla,  and  others,  in  concert  with  whom  he 
lays  the  plan  of  a  new  society.  Thence  he  goes  to  Venice, 
enters  the  convent  of  the  Theatines,  and  astonishes  even  the 
members  of  that  order,  then  accounted  the  strictest  of  all,  as 
well  as  Caraffa,  its  founder,  with  his  austerities  and  his  vigils. 
There  he  has  a  vision  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  deter- 
mines, in  consequence  of  what  the  latter  says  to  him,  to  call 
his  proposed  society  by  the  name  of  Jesus.  From  Venice  he 
goes  to  Rome,  where  he  joins  Lamez,  and  his  other  asso- 
ciates.    They  submit  the  scheme  of  their  society  to  Pope 


THE    ORDER    OF   JESUS.  221 

Paul  m.  The  holy  Father  comprehends  at  once  its  vast 
utility,  and  its  adaptedness  to  the  occasion.  The  bull  author- 
izing its  foundation  was  issued  in  the  year  1540.  Loyola, 
who  is  fairly  entitled  to  the  credit  of  being  its  founder,  is 
chosen  the  first  general  of  the  order.  For  sixteen  years  he 
presided  over  its  affairs,  during  all  which  time  he  perfonned 
the  humblest  services  in  his  church  at  Rome,  such  as  in- 
structing little  children,  collecting  alms  for  the  Jews  and 
public  women,  for  whose  conversion  he  displayed  great  zeal. 

Lainez  succeeded  Loyola  in  the  generalship  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  —  as  the  new  order  was  called,  —  a  man  of  far 
greater  talent  and  energy  than  its  founder.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Francis  Borgia ;  and  he  by  Claudius  Aquaviva, 
who  presided  over  the  order  for  thirty-four  years.  From  his 
plastic  hands,  the  Society  received  those  touches  which  gave 
to  it  the  finish  of  perfection.  To  him  the  order  was  mainly 
indebted  for  the  impulse  and  direction  which  it  received  in 
relation  to  education. 

But  let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  the  organization  of  this 
wonderful  institution,  which  has  rightly  been  compared  to  ^  a 
sword,  whose  handle  is  at  Rome,  but  whose  point  is  every- 
where.' 

The  head  of  the  order  was  its  general,  who  resided  at 
Rome,  and  whose  authority  over  all  its  members  was  complete 
and  indisputable.  He  was  assisted  by  a  monitor,  or  spiritual 
adviser,  and  a  council  of  five  members.  For  convenience, 
the  order  was  divided  into  provinces,  each  of  which  had  a 
head,  called  a  provincial,  who  was  required  to  make  a  report 
to  the  general  once  a  month.  Li  each  province  there  were 
Houses  of  the  professed,  as  the  members  were  called,  over 
which  was  a  superior,  who  was  required  to  make  a  report  to 
the  general  once  in  three  months,  as  were  also  the  heads  of 
the  colleges  which  were  established  by  the  order. 

A  stern  and  severe  no\Ticiate  of  two  years,  was  required  of 
19* 


^2^  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

every  one  who  would  become  a  member  of  the  Society.  Be- 
sides the  professed  members,  who  alone  had  a  vote  in  the 
<;hoice  of  the  general,  there  were  the  scholars  and  spiritual 
coadjutors,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  education  of  youth, 
in  boarding  schools  and  colleges,  and  to  the  occupation  of 
preachers  and  confessors  at  courts,  as  well  as  tutors  in  fami- 
lies, and  rectors  of  institutions  of  learning.  These  have  been 
called  the  artists  of  the  order.  And,  lastly,  there  were  the 
secidar  coadjutors,  who  were  laymen,  who  had  not  taken  the 
monastic  vow,  but  who,  as  subalterns  and  confederates,  have 
been  termed  the  people  of  the  Society.  Princes  and  other 
great  men  were  sometimes  admitted  to  this  rank,  for  the  sake 
of  honor. 

The  members  were  required  to  take  the  usual  vows  of  the 
orders,  —  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  But  the  last- 
named  was  taken  in  the  most  absolute  sense  imaginable.  It 
bound  him  who  took  it,  to  go  on  a  mission  to  the  heathen,  or 
heretics,  or  undertake  any  other  task,  to  which  the  general 
might  call  him.  The  motto  of  the  Society  was :  Omnia  in 
majorem  Dei  gloriam.  ^^ 

The  members  of  this  order  were  forbidden  to  seek,  or 
accept,  any  post  of  honor  in  the  Church,  such  as  the  office  of 
a  bishop,  archbishop,  patriarch,  pope,  etc.  They  were  not 
permitted  to  confess  a  woman,  save  in  the  presence  of  a  third 
person,  who  should,  however,  be  a  Jesuit.  They  were  not 
allowed  to  receive  money  for  saying  masses. 

On  the  other  hand,  they  were  permitted  to  enjoy  not  only 
all  the  rights  of  the  mendicant  and  secular  orders,  and  be 
exempt  from  all  supervision  of  the  bishops,  and  jurisdiction 
of  civil  magistrates,  so  tliat  they  should  acknowledge  no 
authority  but  that  of  the  pope  and  the  superiors  of  their 
order,  but  they  could  also  exercise  every  priestly  function, 

80  All  for  the  greater  glory  of  God. 


THE    ORDER    OF   JESUS.  223 

parochial  rights  notwithstanding,  among  all  classes  of  men, 
even  during  an  interdict.  They  could  absolve  from  all  sins 
and  ecclesiastical  penalties,  change  the  object  of  a  vow, 
acquire  churches  and  estates  without  further  papal  sanction ; 
dispense  themselves,  in  certain  circumstances,  from  the  ob- 
servance of  canonical  hours,  fasts,  and  prohibitions  of  meats, 
and  even  from  the  use  of  the  breviary.  Their  general  was 
mvested  with  unhmited  power  over  the  members.  He  could 
send  them  on  missions  of  every  kind;  could  appoint  pro- 
fessors of  theology  at  his  discretion,  whenever  he  chose ;  and 
confer  academical  degi-ees,  which  were  to  be  equivalent  to 
those  granted  by  the  universities.  These  privileges  secured 
to  the  Jesuits  a  power  and  an  influence  incomparably  greater 
than  those  of  any  other  order,  and  fitted  them  for  any  sort  of 
work.  They  could  mingle  with  the  world  as  men  of  the 
world.  They  could  be  agreeable  and  accommodating  confess- 
ors at  courts,  and  the  companions  of  the  rich  and  the  gay,  as 
well  as  visit  the  poor,  or  carry  the  banner  of  the  Cross  to  the 
distant  pagans,  or  undertake  the  conversion  of  the  most  des- 
perate heretics. 

As  the  Reformation  was  advocated  by  many  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  that  day,  and  the  Protestants  everywhere 
encouraged  learning,  the  Jesuits  resolved  to  do  the  same. 
They  entered  with  zeal  into  the  education  of  youth ;  their 
schools  and  colleges  multiplied  on  every  hand ;  they  trained 
up  able  professors ;  they  pubKshed  expurgated  editions  of  the 
classics ;  and  not  a  few  of  them  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  various  branches  of  science,  and  in  all  the  walks  of  htera- 
ture.  In  this  respect,  their  course  differed  as  much  from 
that  of  all  the  other  orders,  save  that  of  the  Dominicans,  the 
Barnabites,  and  a  few  others,  as  their  gentlemanly  costume 
and  polite  manners  did  from  the  repulsive  habiliments,  and 
the  coarse  and  disgusting  manners,  of  the  Capuchins,  and 
other  monks. 


224  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

Commencing  in  the  pope's  dominions,  tliey  soon  spread 
over  all  parts  of  Italy.  They  spread  in  Portugal  and  Spain, 
and  all  their  possessions,  and  in  the  most  of  the  Catholic  por- 
tions of  Germany,  especially  Bavaria  and  Austria.  They 
gained  a  foothold  in  France.  They  penetrated  into  the 
distant  East,  and  planted  their  standard  in  China,  Japan,  and 
the  Moluccas.  Besides  their  missions  in  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  settlements  in  the  new  world,  they  undertook  to 
plant  a  commonwealth  in  South  America,  and  established  a 
theocracy  of  their  own  devising  in  Paraguay. 

Never  had  Rome  seen  the  rise  of  any  other  order,  which 
was  so  rapid,  or  which  promised  to  do  so  much  to  sustain  her 
authority.  She  had  at  length  obtained  a  true  Prcetorian 
band,  an  army  of  Strelitzes  and  Janizaries,  —  a  faithful  life- 
guard, —  who  were  capable  of  defending  her. 

And  now  one  would  suppose  that  she  was  fully  prepared 
to  take  the  field  against  the  Protestant  heresy,  to  arrest 
whose  inroads  all  this  burnishing  of  her  old  armor,  this 
renewing,  recruiting,  increasing  of  her  cohorts,  was  made. 
But  still  there  was  something  wanting.  The  voice  of  the 
Church  must  be  heard,  not  in  favor  of  reform,  which  was  so 
much  needed,  but  to  define  heresy,  and  oppose  the  new 
doctrines. 

III.     Tlie   Council  of  Trent. 

Finding  it  impossible  to  resist  longer  the  demands  of  so 
large  a  portion  of  the  Church,  enforced  by  the  importunity  of 
Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  Pope  Paul  III.  sum- 
moned a  Council  to  be  held  at  Trent,  a  secluded  and  ancient 
city  in  the  Tyrolese  Alps.  It  was  opened  on  the  13th  of 
December,  1545,  and  was  closed  on  the  4th  of  December, 
1563.  Including  adjournments,  some  of  which  lasted  many 
months,  this  famous  Council  continued  through  eighteen 
years,   wanting  a  few   days.      Its   different  sessions  were 


COUNCIL    OF   TRENT.  225 

in  all  twenty-five.  The  number  of  its  members  varied 
very  much  from  time  to  time.  The  Jesuits  Lainez  and  Sal- 
meron  were  there.  Its  decrees  and  canons  were  signed  by 
two  hundred  and  fifty-five  prelates.  Those  from  Italy  were 
more  numerous  than  all  the  others  combined.  This  fact,  in 
connection  w^ith  the  character  and  talent  of  his  legates, 
secured  for  the  pope  a  complete  ascendancy,  from  beginning 
to  end,  in  this  celebrated  synod;  and  on  every  point  his 
wishes  were  fully  gratified. 

The  Council  of  Trent  confirmed  all  the  hitherto  uncanon- 
ized  errors  of  Rome.  It  anathematized  almost  all  the  great 
doctrines  of  the  gospel.  It  declared  the  Apocrypha  a  part  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  elevated  tradition  to  a  level  with  the 
Word  of  God,  pronounced  the  Vulgate  to  be  authentic,  and 
quite  equal  to  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek  Scriptures, 
and  made  the  Church  its  interpreter.  It  established  as  a 
law  the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  took  away  the  cup  from  the 
laity,  opposed  and  condemned  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith.  It  confirmed  all  the  gross  errors  which  Rome  had 
previously  taught  respecting  purgatory,  the  worship  of  the 
saints,  the  adoration  of  images  and  relics,  monastic  vows, 
indulgences,  fasts,  prohibition  of  certain  meats,  and  made 
provision  for  an  Lidex  of  forbidden  books,  a  catechism,  and  a 
breviary,  a  task  which  it  enjoined  upon  the  pope  to  carry 
into  execution. 

It  created  a  great  gulf  between  the  Protestants  and 
Roman  Catholics,  so  far  as  religious  doctrine  and  ecclesias- 
tical rites  and  economy  are  concerned,  and  it  widened  and 
deepened  that  which  had  existed  between  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Churches  since  the  ninth  century.  It  had  been 
called  for  from  various  quarters,  for  the  purpose  of  reform- 
ing abuses,  and  concihating  and  reclaiming  the  Protestants. 
But  it  reformed  no  abuses  worthy  of  mention,  and  it  repelled 
instead  of  winning  those  who  had  embraced  the  new  doc- 


^26  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

trines.  '  Cursed  be  all  heretics ! '  cried  the  Cardinal  of  Lor- 
raine, at  the  close  of  its  last  session.  And  '  cursed !  cursed ! ' 
responded  all  the  prelates.  '  Cursed !  cursed ! '  echoed  back 
the  lofty  dome  of  the  old  cathedral  of  Trent.  Never  had 
there  been  so  much  '  cursing '  in  any  other  synod,  since  the 
world  was  made.  The  members  separated  in  this  accursed 
spirit,  and  returned  home  to  enter,  with  renewed  ardor,  upon 
the  work  of  exterminating  heresy. 

Nor  were  the  hopes  which  the  pope  founded  upon  the 
decisions  of  this  Council  and  their  consequences  disappomted. 
For  now  the  doctrines  of  Rome  were  clearly  defined.  The 
whole  system  was  definitively  arranged.  The  toil  of  ages 
was  at  length  at  an  end.  The  grand  edifice  of  Romish 
superstition  and  error  was  finished,  and  the  cap-stone  laid. 
The  canon  of  tradition  was  completed.  No  more  additions 
were  to  be  made ;  no,  not  even  the  slightest  alterations  and 
amendments  were  to  be  allowed. 

Much  was  done  for  Rome  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Her 
position  was  better  ascertained  than  ever.  Thenceforth  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  for  a  member  of  that  Church  to 
hold  a  heretical  opinion,  or  even  the  shadow  of  one,  without 
knowing  it.  It  was  far  from  having  been  so,  in  previous 
ages.  Of  course,  it  would  be,  thenceforth,  far  more  difficult 
for  those  who  held  the  '  Truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,'  to  remain  in 
that  Church  with  a  pure  conscience. 

An  Index  of  Forbidden  Books,  or  rather  a  spiritual  cen- 
sorship, was  a  natural  result  of  the  doings  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  That  body  of  ecclesiastical  lawgivers  decided,  that 
there  must  be  a  tribunal  created  to  look  after  the  press,  and 
see  to  it  that  no  books  should  be  read  by  men,  and  especially 
by  the  faithful,  that  contained  opinions  wliich  Rome  does  not 
believe  to  be  orthodox.     This  was  an  important  point  gained. 

One  weapon  more  was  necessary,  and  that,  Rome  had  long 
had  in  her  magazine.     It  was  the  Liquisition.     This  was  to 


REACTION   IN   FAVOR    OF   ROilANISM.  227 

be  the  grand  instrument  for  destroying  heresy,  and  compell- 
ing men  to  remain  in  her  communion.  And  now  this  dread- 
ful institution,  more  completely  moulded  after  the  Spanish 
pattern,  was  introduced  into  Italy,  as  we  have  stated.  Holy 
Inquisitors,  as  they  were  called,  traversed  the  country  in  all 
directions.  Through  the  espionage  of  the  priests  and  monks, 
as  well  as  their  own  sleepless  vigilance,  they  were  enabled  to 
track  every  heretic.  And,  disregarding  all  civil  authority, 
they  pounced  upon  their  victims  without  remorse,  and  bore 
them  off,  in  most  cases,  to  certain  and  cruel  death. 

We  have  now  indicated  the  various  forces  which  Rome 
mustered,  wherewith  to  encounter  the  Reformation,  and  indi- 
cated the  measures  and  influences  which  she  wielded  in  the 
great  and  furious  warfare  which  she  was  about  to  make  upon 
the  Reformed  doctrine.  The  sti-uggle  was  to  be  a  desperate 
one.  She  was  contending  for  her  life.  She  must  stay  the 
spread  of  Truth,  or  be  herself  undone.  The  contest  was  to 
be  such  a  one  as  she  never  had  waged,  and  the  like  of  which 
she  will  probably  see  but  once  more.  It  was  to  cost  her  fully 
one  third  part  of  the  vast  domains  which  she  then  possessed, 
and  that  in  some  respects  the  most  important  of  all.  Nor 
was  she  wanting  to  herself  in  the  eventful  crisis. 

TV.     The  Reaction  in  favor  of  Romanism. 

And  now  the  strife  was  fairly  commenced.  The  Reform- 
ers in  the  north  of  Europe,  with  the  immortal  Luther  at  their 
head,  were  carrying  every  thing  before  them.  Entire  nations 
around  the  Baltic  abandoned  Rome ;  and  England,  Scotland, 
and  Holland,  soon  arranged  themselves  under  the  same  ban- 
ners. But  a  reaction  commenced  on  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  pope  rallied  his  various  and  numerous  hosts. 
Loyola  was  the  champion  of  the  ancient  Faith,  and  the  spirit 
of  his  Order  was  infused  into  all  the  ranks  of  the  papacy.  It 
was  felt  at  Rome  itself,  and  a  wonderful  reform  commenced 


228  ITALY    SINCE    THE   KEFOKMATION. 

in  the  Eternal  City.  Its  court  became  purified.  During  the 
generation  which  preceded  the  Reformation,  that  court  had 
been  a  scandal  to  Christendom.  Treason,  murder,  and  even 
incest  disgraced  its  annals.  Several  of  the  popes  of  that  age 
were  refined,  learned,  and  voluptuous  deists.  Their  days 
were  passed  away  in  elegant  entertainments,  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  letters,  and  in  the  society  of  beautiful  women.  But 
now  other  men  were  raised  up  to  the  direction  of  the  affairs 
of  the  tottering  Church,  men  who  could  wear  the  haircloth 
beneath  their  gorgeous  robes,  and  who  had  the  austerity  of 
eastern  anchorites,  and  the  burning  zeal  of  a  Cyprian  or  a 
Chrysostom.  The  study  of  the  classics,  the  searching  for 
ancient  frescos  and  cameos,  and  mosaics,  and  the  admiration 
of  the  works  of  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Benvenuto, 
were  abandoned  for  the  sterner  task  of  saving  the  Church 
from  the  perils  with  which  she  was  menaced. 

Nor  was  it  on  moral  influence  alone  that  Rome  relied. 
The  civil  sword  was  soon  unsheathed  in  Italy  and  Spain,  and 
unsparingly  employed  in  her  support.  The  Inquisition  was 
armed  with  new  powers,  and  worked  with  new  energy. 
Every  semblance  of  Protestantism  was  pursued  with  all  pos- 
sible violence.  Those  who  were  suspected  of  heresy  must 
purge  themselves  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  or 
prepare  to  be  burned.  And  so  effectual  was  the  work  of  ex- 
tirpating the  new  doctrines  carried  on,  that,  before  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  almost  every  vestige  of  them  had  dis- 
appeared from  Italy,  save  at  Venice  and  one  or  two  other 
places.  Even  the  books  which  were  written  by  those  who 
were  suspected  of  heresy,  were  so  thoroughly  hunted  up  and 
burned,  that  it  is  now  almost  impossible  to  find,  in  the  most 
extensive  libraries,  a  copy  of  some  which  were  once  widely 
circulated  in  that  country. 

Nor  was  the  deadly  struggle  carried  on  only  in  Italy  and 
Spain.     There  was  a  vast  middle  field  lying  between  the 


REACTION    IN    FAVOR    OF    ROMANISM.  229 

Roman  Catholic  nations  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Protestant  states  on  those  of  the  BaUic,  composed  of 
France,  Flanders,  Southern  Germany,  Bohemia,  Poland, 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania.  Into  all  these  the 
Protestant  religion  spread,  and  was  embraced  by  millions. 
It  was  for  the  possession  of  this  great  field,  that  the  war  was 
to  be  carried  on  by  the  partisans  of  the  old  and  the  new  doc- 
trines. 

The  history  of  Christianity  since  the  Reformation  is  both 
interesting  and  instructive.  At  the  end  of  half  a  century 
after  Luther  and  Zuingle  commenced  their  glorious  mission, 
Protestantism  had  won  entire  nations  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
and  was  triumphant  around  the  Baltic.  It  even  threatened 
to  conquer  all  middle  and  southern  Europe.  A  hundred 
years  later,  we  find  Romanism  in  the  entire  possession  of  th^:, 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  dominant  in  all  the  middle 
countries  of  Europe,  from  the  German  Ocean  to  the  Black 
Sea.  Protestantism  had  not  only  ceased  to  advance,  but  had 
actually  lost  ground  in  Europe ;  whilst  Rome  had  not  only 
recovered  much  which  she  had  lost  in  the  Old  "World,  but  had 
actually  greatly  enlarged  her  territorial  possessions,  by  means 
of  the  extensive  colonies  planted  by  the  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  French  in  the  New.  What  were  the  causes  of  this 
reverse  to  the  Protestant  interests,  which  once  promised  to 
be  triumphant  every  where  ?     They  were  many  and  various. 

1.  Rome  changed  her  character,  and  instead  of  reposing 
longer  in  luxurious  ease,  she  awoke  with  mighty  vigor  to  the 
conflict.  And,  as  we  have  stated,  she  infused  new  life  into 
all  the  ranks  of  the  secular  clergy,  and  revived  and  increased 
her  religious  orders.  Enthusiasm  now  took  the  place  of  in- 
difference. Learning  revived,  at  least,  in  some  portions  of 
her  priesthood.  The  Jesuits,  the  Barnabites,  the  Fathers  of 
the  Oratory,  furnished  some  distinguished  scholars  and  splen- 
did preachers ;  whilst  the  first-named  could  point  to  mis- 
20 


230  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

sionaries,  whose  burning  zeal  was  ready  to  carry  tliem  to 
martyrdom  in  the  islands  of  the  distant  East,  or  amid  the 
Andes  of  America. 

2.  In  the  next  place,  Rome,  in  accordance  with  her  dogma, 
that  it  is  right  to  destroy  heretics  with  the  sword  and  the 
fagot,  exterminated  the  Reformed  doctrine  by  violence,  in 
Italy  and  Spain,  and  employed  all  her  influence  to  expel  it, 
by  the  same  means,  from  the  countries  north  of  the  two  Pen- 
insulas, which  constituted  the  base  of  the  lines  of  her  forces. 
Nor  did  she  fail  to  see  her  wishes  gratified.  Not  only  thou- 
sands but  millions  of  men  lost  their  lives  in  that  great  middle 
field  of  which  we  have  spoken.  In  the  Netherlands,  in 
France,  in  Bohemia,  in  Moravia,  what  scenes  of  blood  took 
place !  And  what  sort  of  Christianity  is  that  which  can 
resort  to  such  means  of  advancement  ? 

3.  Not  content  with  persecution,  Rome  resorted  even  to 
internal  and  external  wars,  in  order  to  arrest  the  progress  of 
Protestantism.  This  she  did  in  France,  Flanders,  Poland, 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania.  She  urged  the  em- 
peror of  Germany  to  violate  the  pledges  of  the  empire  in 
behalf  of  the  Protestants,  and  make  war  upon  them,  and  then 
aided  him  with  all  her  influence. 

4.  On  the  other  hand.  Protestantism  lost  her  original  char- 
acter, through  the  influence  of  her  successes  even,  and  after- 
wards of  the  persecutions  and  the  struggles  through  which 
she  had  to  pass.  Having  gained  several  nations  in  the  north 
of  Europe,  she  soon  became  content  with  her  victories ;  or 
rather  she  soon  began  to  rely  on  an  arm  of  flesh,  instead  of 
trusting  to  the  Spirit  and  grace  of  her  exalted  and  glorious 
Head.  It  was  her  misfortune,  owing  to  the  erroneous  views 
which  then  prevailed  in  all  parts  of  Christendom,  and  owing 
also  to  the  circumstances  in  which  the  Reformation  was  car- 
ried on  in  some  countries,  to  ally  herself  to  the  State,  and 
submit  herself  to  all  the  injurious  influence  of  this  unhal- 


REACTION    IN    FAVOR    OF    ROMANISM.  231 

lowed  union.  This  led  inevitably,  through  the  introduction 
of  unconverted  men  into  the  ministry  from  selfish  motives,  to 
the  corruption  of  sound  doctrine  in  the  churches,  and  the 
banishment  of  true  piety  from  them. 

5.  It  was  also  a  sad  calamity  to  Protestantism  that  the 
Reformation  was  not  thorough  enough,  even  in  the  countries 
in  which  it  prevailed.  Too  much  of  Romanism  was  permitted 
to  cleave,  even  to  the  purest  of  the  Protestant  churches.  In 
some  cases  this  residuum  of  the  old  leaven  related  to  doc- 
trines ;  in  other  cases  to  ecclesiastical  organization ;  and  in 
others  still  to  their  views  of  what  relations  the  Church  ought 
to  bear  to  civil  government.  It  resulted  from  these,  that 
very  soon  formalism,  or  a  disposition  to  make  religion  consist, 
as  among  the  Roman  Catholics,  in  a  compliance  with  certain 
ceremonies  and  forms,  rather  than  in  the  renewing  of  the 
heart  by  faith  in  Christ,  and  the  effectual  operation  of  the 
Spirit,  crept  into  the  Protestant  churches  every  where.  Nor 
did  the  Reformation  thoroughly  pervade  the  masses  in  any 
country.  This  it  could  not,  perhaps,  be  expected,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  to  do  at  once.  And  what  postponed  this 
blessed  consummation  in  some  countries,  and  prevented  it 
altogether  in  others,  was  the  melancholy  occurrence  of  the 
wars  in  which  the  Protestant  nations  were  soon  involved, 
either  to  defend  themselves  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
powers,  or,  what  was  still  more  deplorable,  in  settling  their 
disputes  with  one  another,  —  disputes  which  old  national 
antipathies  generated,  and  which  they  had  not  religion 
enough  to  suppress.  What  Protestant  of  our  times  can  read, 
without  tears,  the  wars  which  Protestant  England  carried  on 
with  Protestant  Holland,  and  Protestant  Denmark  with 
Protestant  Sweden  ?  All  these  wars  hindered,  to  a  degree 
of  which  it  is  hard  for  us  to  have  any  just  conception,  the 
thorough  regeneration  of  those  countries  which  the  Reforma- 
tion had  so  happily  commenced. 


232  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

We  think  that  the  reader  will  agree  with  us,  after  having 
attentively  weighed  the  causes  above  stated,  that  it  is  not 
wonderful  that  Protestantism  did  not  make  more  extensive 
conquests ;  nor  that  Romanism,  rallying  all  its  forces,  moral, 
physical,  and  political,  not  only  maintained  itself  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  drove  its  antagonist  back, 
almost  to  the  Baltic. 

V.     Reaction  against  Romanism, 

Another  century  passes  away,  and  we  are  brought  to  the 
year  1768.  And  what  was  then  the  state  of  the  Protestants 
and  Roman  Catholics,  relative  and  positive?  Neither  the 
one  nor  the  other  had  gained  much  upon  its  antagonist. 
Both  had  increased,  especially  in  the  New  World,  through 
the  natural  increase  of  the  population  of  the  countries  in 
which  they  predominated.  Both  were  content  to  maintain  the 
status  quo,  and  to  consider  Protestantism  and  Romanism  to 
be  political  rather  than  religious  elements,  and  only  to  be 
taken  into  account  when  there  was  question  respecting  the 
balance  of  power.  Both  had  sunken  down  into  a  state  of 
profound  apathy.  In  the  Protestant  nations  of  Europe,  with 
the  exception  of  the  partial  revival  of  true  piety  in  Great 
Britain,  through  the  labors  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield,  and  in 
Germany  through  those  of  Francke  and  Spener,  formalism 
had  long  prevailed  in  the  churches.  In  some  parts  a  cold 
Pelagianism,  a  lifeless  Arianism,  and  even  Deism,  had  been 
gaining  ground.  Whilst  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  victory 
had  led  to  insolence,  and  finally  to  carelessness,  indolence,  and 
worldliness,  on  the  part  of  the  hierarchy.  In  consequence  of 
this,  a  general  disgust  was  felt  among  the  higher  classes  at 
the  doctrines  and  rites  of  Rome.  Every  where  the  way  was 
fast  preparing  for  the  outburst  of  infidelity  and  irreligion, 
which  took  place  a  few  years  later,  when  the  seeds  of  politi- 
cal liberty  which  the  Reformation  had  sown,  more  or  less 


LIFE    RETURNS    TO    BOTH.  233 

profusely  in  all  Europe,  as  well  as  in  America,  after  having 
long  germinated,  were  about  to  produce  an  abundant  harvest 
in  both  hemispheres. 

The  Revolution  of  1789,  in  France,  gave  another  dreadful 
blow  to  Rome.  It  was  the  fourth;  but  it  differed  widely 
from  the  three  which  preceded  it,  for  it  came  from  the  hands 
of  those  who  hated  Christianity  under  every  name  and  every 
form.  Twenty-five  years  of  war  and  revolution  ensued,  fatal 
to  the  interests  of  vital  piety,  but  fraught  with  due  punish- 
ment both  to  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  nations  for 
their  sins. 

VI.     Life  and  vigor  now  return  to  both  Protestantism  and 
Romanism, 

At  length  peace  returned  to  bleeding  Europe.  From  that 
epoch  life,  which  had  commenced  reflowing  to  the  Protestant 
churches  years  before  in  Great  Britain,  began  to  manifest 
itself  in  the  corrupt  and  dead  churches  on  the  Continent. 
With  the  resuscitation  of  evangeHcal  doctrines,  the  spirit  of 
missions,  or  a  desire  to  fulfil  the  Saviour's  last  command  to 
his  disciples,  began  to  manifest  itself.  As  this  spirit  in- 
creased in  Protestant  Christendom,  a  correspondmg  revival 
commenced  in  that  which  is  Roman  Catholic.  And  at  this 
moment,  whilst  the  Protestant  churches  which  hold  fast  the 
Truth,  are  coming  more  and  more  every  year  up  to  the 
great  work  of  spreading  the  gospel  throughout  the  world, 
Rome  is  also  burnishing  her  armor,  replenishing  her  maga- 
zines, recruiting  her  forces  of  priests,  and  friars,  and  sisters, 
and  preparing,  not  to  act  on  the  defensive  alone,  but  to  con- 
quer her  enemy.  She  has  reestablished  the  order  of  Jesus 
in  Italy,  and  such  other  countries  as  will  tolerate  them.  The 
gi'eat  struggle  has  commenced.  But  who  knows  ivhen  it  will 
end?  Blessed  be  God,  we  cannot  doubt  hoio  it  will  termi- 
nate, for  the  downfall  of  Babylon  is  as  certain  as  the  word  of 
20* 


234  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

God  is  true.  In  the  mean  while,  the  advance  of  political  and 
civil  liberty  is  steady,  and  religious  liberty  is  following  in  its 
train.  Every  Roman  Catholic  country  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  has  undergone  a  great  change  in  its  political  relations 
or  its  form  of  government,  within  far  less  than  a  century, 
save  Italy  and  Austria.  In  every  case,  these  changes  have 
been  more  or  less  favorable  to  the  spread  of  the  Truth.  Nor 
is  it  probable  that  Italy  and  Austria  will  long  form  excep- 
tions, for  their  day  hastens  apace.  The  prospect  is  full  of 
encouragement  to  all  who  pray  for,  and  earnestly  expect,  the 
establishment  of  Christ's  kingdom  on  the  earth. 

As  to  Italy,  the  despotism  which  reigns  there  in  all  parts, 
save  the  Duchies  of  Tuscany  and  Lucca,  has  long  been  felt 
to  be  intolerable.  And  were  it  not  for  Austria,  the  spirit  of 
revolution,  which  has  with  so  much  difficulty  been  kept  down 
these  last  twenty-five  years,  would  break  forth  in  all  direc- 
tions. Nor  is  the  spiritual  despotism  which  exists  in  that 
country  less  detested  than  the  political.  Among  the  middle 
and  highest  classes  there  are  thousands  who  look  upon  the 
priests  and  monks  of  every  order  as  so  many  spies,  from 
whose  presence  it  is  impossible  to  escape.  To  take  measures 
to  avoid  their  intrusion  even  into  the  sanctity  of  domestic 
life,  would  excite  their  cruel  suspicion,  and  attract  their  vin- 
dictive hatred.  Nothing  but  the  iron  hand  of  despotism 
keeps  the  people  in  subjection.  As  it  is,  ever  and  anon,  the 
burning  indignation  of  the  more  courageous  bursts  forth,  and 
draws  down  upon  their  devoted  heads  the  direful  effects  of 
priestly  and  despotic  wrath.  Within  the  pope's  dominions, 
even  within  the  last  few  months,  many  men  have  been  sum- 
marily put  to  death  because  they  were  suspected  of  design- 
ing to  rid  their  country  of  the  monstrous  despotism,  beneath 
which  it  groans. 

But  Avhatever  Rome  may  do  to  resuscitate  her  unscriptu- 
ral  dogmas  and  ancient  superstitions,  she  will  find  the  effort 


SACRED    LITERATURE.  235 

wholly  vain.  For  although  the  masses  of  people,  being  igno- 
rant and  degraded,  and  content  with  mere  forms,  may  be 
retained  for  a  considerable  time  in  her  grasp,  yet  the  higher 
and  more  intelligent  classes  see  through  and  detest  her  vain 
ceremonies  and  hypocritical  professions.  And  sooner  or 
later,  they  will  spurn  from  their  lips  the  cup  of  her  pagan 
abominations,  and  demand  the  pure  water  of  life.  Even  now 
this  is  beginning  to  be  the  case. 

VII.     Sacred  Literature  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation, 

At  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
were  some  able  writers  in  Italy,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  such  as  Cardinals  Cajetan,  Pole,  Caraffa,  and 
Bembo.  There  have  been  distinguished  authors  in  that 
Church  from  time  to  time.  And  yet  it  must  be  confessed 
that  Italy,  with  all  the  advantages  which  she  has  possessed, 
has  not  done  much  for  sacred  literature  during  the  last  three 
hundred  years.  Bellarmino,  Baronio,  Paolo  Sarpi,  Pallavi- 
cini,  and  others,  distinguished  themselves  in  writing  in  de- 
fence of  the  Church  and  in  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
former  part  of  that  period.  In  later  times  the  writings  of 
Berti,  Ughelli,   Lucentius,   Galland,   Mansi,   and   Liguori,^^ 


31  Alfonso  Maria  di  Liguori,  who  was  born  at  Naples  in  the  year  1696,  founded  a 
monastery  at  Villa  Scala,  in  the  year  1732,  the  members  of  which  were  called  the 
Order  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  This  order  resembled  so  much  that  of  the  Jesuits, 
that  after  the  suppression  of  the  latter,  the  Ligorists  or,  Redemptorists ,  as  they  are 
often  called,  in  some  respects  took  their  place,  especially  in  Italy.  Gradually  it 
has  extended  itself,  until  it  now  has  monasteries  not  only  in  that  country  but  also 
in  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  some  other  countries.  In  the  year  ISll,  they  took 
possession  of  the  suppressed  Carthusian  monaster>'  at  Val-Saint,  in  the  Canton  of 
Fribourg,  where  they  have  now  a  large  establishment.  They  have  also  a  rich 
monastery  in  Vienna.  Since  the  restoration  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  the  Ligorists 
have  probably  made  less  progress,  and  may  be  considered  a  portion  of  the  follo^v- 
ers  of  Ignatius  Loyola.  As  to  Father  Liguori,  now  a  saint  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
calendar,  who  died  in  the  year  1787,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  the  most  important  of 
his  writings  is  his  Morals,  which  is  a  text-book  in  many,  if  not  all  of  the  Jesuit 
Colleges,  —  a  work  which  as  completely  undermines  the  principles  of  all  true 


236  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

attained  considerable  celebrity.  The  first-named  wrote  a 
system  of  dogmatic  theology,  which  has  been  highly  esteemed 
in  Italy.  Galland's  Library  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  Mansi's  Collection  of  the  Councils,  are  works  which  do 
credit  to  their  authors. 

Many  volumes  of  sermons  and  treatises  on  various  theo- 
logical subjects,  have  been  published  in  Italy  since  the  Refor- 
mation ;  but  few  of  them  have  been  much  known  beyond  its 
limits.  Among  the  most  distinguished  preachers  who  have 
flourished  in  Italy  since  the  Reformation,  Giuseppe  Barbieri, 
Bishop  Turchi,  and  Padre  Lojano,  may  be  mentioned.  ^^ 
Several  of  the  present  cardinals  are  reputed  to  be  men  of 
talents.     His  Holiness,  Gregory  XVI.,  is  a  man  of  more 


morality,  as  does  any  thing  which  the  Jesuits  have  ever  published.  A  scorching 
review  of  this  work  appeared  in  Strasburg,  in  the  year  1843,  under  the  title  of 
Decouvertes  dhm  Bibliophile. 

32  The  first-named  of  these  three  distinguished  preachers  and  authors,  was  an 
adopted  son  of  the  celebrated  Melchiore  Cesarotti.  Bishop  Turchi  lived  before 
Barbieri,  and  excelled  him  in  point  of  talent.  Several  volumes  of  his  discourses 
have  been  published,  and  are  highly  esteemed  in  Italy.  As  to  Padre  Lojano,  he 
was  a  man  of  great  talent,  and  an  admirable  writer  ;  but  if  the  reports  respecting 
him,  which  circulate  in  Italy,  be  true,  he  was  not  remarkable  for  piety^  whatever 
else  he  may  have  possessed.  He  lived  in  stormy  times,  and  was  quite  as  much  of 
a  soldier  as  of  a  preacher.  He  was  fond  of  company,  too,  and  was  often  surprised 
when  in  the  midst  of  convivial  scenes,  by  the  ringing  of  the  bell  which  called  him  to 
his  duties  in  the  pulpit.  On  one  occasion,  it  is  reported,  he  was  very  much  pressed 
for  time.  Hastily  seizing  the  pack  of  cards,  with  which  he  had  been  playing  with 
some  friends,  he  thrust  them  into  the  manicle,  or  large  cuff  of  his  coat,  and  hastened 
to  the  church,  mounted  the  pulpit,  and  commenced  preaching  as  usual,  with  great 
animation.  In  the  midst  of  his  discourse,  whilst  vehemently  gesturing,  the 
pack  of  cards  fell  out  of  his  sleeve,  and  came  flying  down  upon  the  heads  of  his 
hearers.  Nothing  daunted  or  discomposed,  he  told  the  people  to  gather  them  up. 
And  observing  a  boy  who  had  picked  up  one  which  he  did  not  give  up,  he  called 
aloud  to  him,  and  asked  him  Avhat  the  name  of  the  card  was,  which  he  had  put  in 
his  pocket.  The  boy  told  him  which  it  was.  He  then  asked  him  '  which  is  the 
eio-hth  Commandment?'  But  he  could  not  tell.  'Fathers  and  mothers,'  cried 
Padre  Lojano,  '  see  how  you  are  bringing  up  your  children !  You  teach  them  how 
to  play  cards,  but  do  not  teach  them  the  Commandments  of  God !  I  have  long  sus- 
pected as  much,  and  adopted  this  method  of  exposing,  in  a  striking  manner,  the 
delinquencies  of  which  you  are  guilty,  in  relation  to  tlie  instruction  of  children. 
And  I  hope  you  will  not  fail  to  profit  by  it.' 


SACRED    LITERATURE.  237 

learning  than  most  of  his  predecessors.  This  is  not  saying 
much.  He  is,  however,  author  of  several  works.  The  late 
Cardinal  Pacca  was  reckoned  to  be  a  man  of  extensive  ac- 
quirements. The  same  reputation  is  enjoyed  by  Cardinal 
Lambruschini.  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  is  famous  for  his 
knowledge  of  languages,  but  is  a  man  of  no  erudition,  and 
of  little  capacity  for  any  thing  else  than  the  acquisition  of 
words.  Cardinal  Maio  is  well  known  for  his  successful 
efforts  in  recovering  the  Republic  of  Cicero,  and  fragments 
of  many  other  ancient  writings,  in  Latin  and  Greek,  by 
deciphering  Palimpsests,  or  Codices  rescripti.  ^ 

"With  the  exception  of  De  Rossi's  various  readings  of  the 
Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  Italy  has  furnished  little 
or  nothing  that  is  of  much  value,  in  the  department  of  bibli- 
cal criticism,  since  the  Reformation.  And  as  to  exegesis,  it 
has  absolutely  stood  still,  whilst  Protestant  Germany,  En- 
gland, and  other  countries  which  have  received  the  Reformed 
doctrine,  have  been  advancing.  Indeed,  there  has  been  little 
done  in  that  country  for  biblical  literature,  save  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Scriptures,  or  portions  of  them,  in  some  of  the 
eastern  languages  at  the  Propaganda  and  at  the  printing 
establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Armenian  Monastery 
at  Venice.  Some  editions  of  the  Septuagint  and  of  the  Vul- 
gate have  been  issued  for  the  benefit  of  the  learned,  and  a 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  made  from  the  Vulgate,  by  An- 
tonio Martini,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  has  been  published 
for  the  benefit  of  the  common  people.  This  is  about  all  that 
has  been  done  to  put  the  Word  of  God  in  circulation.  It  is 
a  mournful  fact  that  there  has  been  far  less  interest  felt  in 


33  For  the  sake  of  those  who  do  not  know,  we  may  state  that  the  Palimpsests  are 
parchments  on  which  were  originally  written  ancient  treatises,  that  were  erased 
by  the  monks  in  the  middle  ages,  in  order  that  they  might  use  the  parchments  for 
writing  upon  them  their  legends  of  the  saints,  etc.  By  a  chemical  process  the 
second  writing  is  removed,  and  the  ancient  made  to  appear. 


238  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

Italy,  so  far  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  concerned, 
in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  since  the  Reformation,  than  was 
displayed  in  the  century  which  preceded  it.  After  that 
glorious  movement  had  commenced  in  Germany,  the  old 
doctrines  were  more  obstinately  maintained  than  ever  in 
Italy,  and  all  further  investigation  of  the  Bible  was  discour- 
aged. It  is  in  consequence  of  this  that  the  knowledge  of  the 
Sacred  Oracles  has  decidedly  and  greatly  retroceded  in  that 
country,  within  the  last  three  centuries. 

VIII.     Character  of  the  Roman   Catholic   Clergy  in  Italy. 

Of  the  literary  attainments  and  qualifications  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy,  in  Italy,  we  have  but  little  to  say.  It  is 
asserted  that  the  entire  number  of  those  who  are  comprised 
in  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  in  that  country,  in- 
cluding all  the  members  of  all  the  orders,  as  well  as  all  the 
secular  clergy,  is  about  five  hundred  thousand.  This  esti- 
mate seems  to  us  to  be  too  high ;  and  yet  no  man  can  pos- 
sibly visit  Italy,  and  travel  extensively  in  it,  without  being 
astonished  at  the  vast  number  of  those  wearing  clerical  habil- 
iments. The  streets  of  Turin,  of  Milan,  of  Rome,  of  Naples, 
and  of  every  other  city,  swarm  with  monks  of  various  orders, 
of  parish  priests,  and  of  students  who  are  members  of  the 
seminaries. 

The  time  has  been  when  the  Italian  bishops  exceeded  in 
number  all  the  rest  of  the  prelates  of  the  whole  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy.  For  aught  we  know,  it  may  be  so  still, 
notwithstanding  the  creation  of  forty  new  bishoprics  within 
the  last  forty-two  years,  most  of  which,  if  not  all,  are  in  other 
countries.  As  to  the  cardinals,  probably  as  many  as  three 
fourths  of  the  Sacred  College  are  Italians,  and  most  of 
them  spend  much  of  their  time  at  Rome,  residing  each  in  his 
palace,  maintaining  the  same  extensive,  costly,  and  cumber- 
some establishments,  driving  about  in  the  same  sort  of  car- 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CLERGY.  239 

riages,  and  surrounded  by  servants  dressed  in  the  same  kind 
of  liverj,  as  did  their  predecessors  in  office  for  the  last  seve- 
ral hundreds  of  years.  ^ 

That  many  of  the  higher  clergy  in  Italy  are  well  educated, 
is  readily  admitted.  There  are  some  of  them  men  of  pro- 
found erudition.  As  a  general  statement,  however,  it  must  be 
averred  that  they  are  men  more  deeply  versed  in  the  dogmas 
of  their  own  church,  more  carefully  instructed  in  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  schools,  and  more  thoroughly  trained  to  the  use  of 
the  dialectics  which  Rome  wields  against  heretics  and  infi- 
dels, than  enriched  with  the  various,  elevating,  and  solid 
erudition  which  prevails  among  the  best  educated  clergy  in 
the  Protestant  Churches  of  every  Protestant  country.  Among 
the  inferior  clergy,  also,  secular  as  well  as  regular,  there  are 
men  of  extensive  acquirements,  especially  in  those  branches 
of  knowledge  which  more  unmediately  concern  their  profes- 
sion. 

These  concessions  we  cheerfully  make,  for  we  have  had 
some  opportunity  of  learning  their  truth  on  the  spot.  But  at 
the  same  time  we  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  there  is  an 
amount  of  ignorance,  gross  ignorance,  in  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  the  parish  priests  and  monks  of  almost  every 
order,  that  would  seem  incredible  to  those  who  have  not 
visited  that  country,  and  learned  the  true  state  of  things  from 
the  best  authorities.  The  greater  part  read  little  or  nothing 
from  day  to  day,  but  the  required  portions  of  the  breviary. 
Vast  numbers  of  them  never  composed  a  sermon  in  their 
lives.  Many  of  them  never  preach  at  all,  or,  if  they  do,  it  is 
only  on  the  festivals  and  great  occasions ;  and  then  they  avail 

34  As  to  the  dress  of  the  cardinals  and  pope,  their  carriages,  the  trappings  of  their 
horses,  and  the  liveries  of  their  servants,  it  is  astonishing  to  see  how  much  the 
scarlet  predominates  over  every  other  color  in  them.  It  w^ould  really  seem  as  if 
they  vi^ere  determined  to  fulfil  to  the  letter  the  predictions  contained  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse, respecting  the  mystical  Babylon. 


240  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

themselves  of  the  many  helps  which  they  find  prepared  for 
their  use. 

What  a  contrast  between  the  labors  of  the  Protestant 
clergy  of  these  United  States,  and  those  of  the  vast  host  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  regular  and  secular,  in  Italy! 
We  have  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  ministers  of  the 
gospel  in  the  different  branches  of  the  Protestant  Church  in 
this  country,  most  of  whom  preach  not  only  once  but  several 
times  during  every  week  in  the  year.  Most  of  them,  besides 
these  public  labors,  which  cost  them  no  little  reading,  reflec- 
tion, and  in  many  cases  writing,  have  many  others  to  per- 
form, such  as  visiting  the  sick  and  dying,  looking  after  the 
poor,  instructing  the  youth  in  Bible-classes,  and  watching 
over  the  spiritual  state  of  the  members  of  their  flocks,  —  to 
say  nothing  of  a  great  deal  of  business  of  a  general  nature, 
relating  to  the  interests  of  religion  or  philanthropy.  Whilst 
in  Italy,  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  and 
monks,  notwithstanding  their  great  number,  preach  but  little, 
nor  do  much  in  the  way  of  giving  that  instruction  in  religion 
or  letters,  which  they  might  so  easily  impart  if  they  had  a 
heart  to  do  it.  There  ought  not  to  be  a  child  in  all  Italy,  of 
a  suitable  age,  growing  up  without  a  good  education,  and 
sound  religious  scriptural  instruction ;  for  there  are  priests, 
monks,  and  nuns  in  abundance,  to  prevent  it.  And  there  is 
a  clergy  there,  sufficiently  numerous  to  cause  the  glorious 
gospel  to  be  preached,  not  only  in  the  churches  ^  on  the  Sab- 
bath, but  more  or  less  frequently  in  almost  every  private 
house,  at  some  appropriate  hour,  during  the  week.  But, 
instead  of  this,  the  most  that  the  priests  and  monks  do  in  the 

35  Numerous  as  are  the  churches  in  Italy,  they  would  be  wholly  insufficient,  in 
the  larger  villages  and  towns,  to  accommodate  all  the  people  of  a  proper  age,  if 
they  would  attend  at  the  same  regular  hours  to  hear  preaching,  with  appropriate 
prayers,  as  in  our  Protestant  churches,  instead  of  mass,  or  merely  a  liturgical  ser- 
vice. 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CLERGY.  241 

way  of  public  religious  service,  is  to  saj  mass,  and  repeat 
matins  and  vespers.  ^  That  they  devote  much  of  their  time 
to  hearing  confessions,  visiting  the  sick,  administering  the 
sacraments,  etc.,  we  do  not  deny.  And  many  of  those  who- 
conscientiously  devote  themselves  to  these  vocations,  are  cer- 
tainly greatly  occupied.  That  this  is  the  case,  however,  with 
the  mass  of  priests  and  monks  in  that  country,  no  one  can 
possibly  affirm,  who  knows  any  thing  about  it. 

That  there  are  some  worthy,  simple-hearted,  sincere,,  and 
excellent  men  among  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  in  Italy,  is 
what  we  firmly  believe.  But  that  there  is  a  vast  number  of 
a  very  different  character,  is  the  testimony  of  every  intelligent 
and  candid  Italian  with  whom  we  have  ever  conversed,  as 
well  as  of  every  foreigner  who  has  resided  long  enough  there 
to  be  able  to  form  a  just  opinion.  Now  it  is  undeniable  that 
worthless  men  are  sometimes  found  in  the  ministry  of  Prot- 
estant churches ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  compare  with  what 
exists  in  Italy,  or  else  we  have  been  wholly  misinformed, 
even  by  excellent  Catholics  in  that  country,  as  well  as  by 
converted  priests,  who  knew  their  country  well.  It  is  cer- 
tainly a  general  opinion  in  Italy,  that  very  many  of  the 
secular,  or  parish  clergy,  are  corrupt  in  their  lives.  That 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  wickedness  among  the  monks  is 
also  asserted.  How  often  have  we  heard  it  said  in  Italy,  by 
Italians  themselves,  that  many  of  the  clergy,  of  all  grades,  are 
skeptics  and  infidels.  What  proportion  are  such,  no  one 
knows ;  but  it  is  believed  that  there  are  thousands.  Very 
different  is  the  character  of  the  French,  Swiss,  and  German 
Roman  Catholic  priests. 

That  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  priests  and  monks  in 
Italy  possess,  and  read  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  in  any  lan- 
guage, is    what   no    Roman    Catholic   of  that   country   wilt 

36  Morning  and  evening  prayers. 

21 


242  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

venture  to  deny.  How  then  can  it  be  expected  that  they 
should  have  much  clear  knowledge  of  the  glorious  plan  of 
salvation,  which  the  Bible  reveals  ?  We  have  often  talked 
with  priests  and  monks  in  that  countiy,  on  this  subject,  and 
have  been  deeply  pained  to  see  how  utterly  ignorant  they 
were  of  the  very  first  elements  of  the  blessed  gospel. 

IX.     State  of  the  Monastic  Estahlishments  in  Italy. 

Monastic  establishments  are  numerous  in  all  parts  of  Italy. 
Almost  all  the  orders,  including  their  various  branches,  have 
convents,  or  what  is  equivalent,  ^  in  greater  or  less  numbers, 
in  that  country.  We  propose  to  say  a  few  words  respecting 
the  present  state  of  these  establishments,  both  male  and 
female. 

From  all  that  we  have  been  able  to  learn,  when  in  Italy, 
we  should  think  that  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
state  of  the  monasteries  and  convents  in  the  different  parts  of 
that  country.  ^  We  hold  the  opinion,  that  those  in  Tuscany 
are  far  better  regulated,  and  probably  contain  a  greater  num- 
ber of  seriously-minded,  and  we  would  fain  hope,  pious  per- 
sons, than  those  in  any  other  portion  of  that  land.  The 
worst,  we  are  inclined  to  believe,  are  those  in  the  pope's  do- 
minions. Those  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  in  the  Estates 
of  Sardinia,  as  well  as  those  in  the  Duchies  of  Modena  and 
Parma,  are  probably  not  much  better  than  those  in  the  king- 
dom of  his  Holiness. 

A  friend,  in  whose  piety  and  judgment  we  have  great  con- 
fidence, visited,  two  or  three  years  ago,  a  number  of  the 
monasteries  in  Tuscany,  and  was  much  pleased  with  the  se- 
rious and  candid  spirit  of  inquiry  which  he  found  to  prevail  in 

37  The  Professed  Houses  of  the  Jesuits  are,  after  all,  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
monasteries  without  the  name. 

38  There  is  also  a  difference  between  those  of  the  different  orders.  The  Capu- 
chins are,  we  believe,  still  the  strictest  of  all  the  orders.  Perhaps  the  Theatines 
are  their  equals.    They  were  once  their  superiors. 


MONASTERIES.  243 

the  minds  of  some  of  the  monks,  especially  the  younger  ones. 
He  found,  also,  some  cases  of  apparently  real,  though  not 
well  enlightened  piety,  which  interested  him  greatly.  But  if 
there  be  any  truth  in  what  we  heard  respecting  the  monas- 
teries in  the  Roman  States,  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  some 
other  parts  of  Italy,  when  in  that  country,  the  state  of  things 
in  many  of  them  must  be  horrible.  Nor  is  it  possible  for  us 
to  disbelieve  all  that  is  reported  about  these  institutions. 
We  have  known  several  Italian  monks  who,  having  come  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  errors  of  Romanism,  in  the  monasteries 
in  which  they  were,  have  abandoned  them  forever.  We  can- 
not give  their  names  without  exposing  them  to  great  perils. 
We  have  also  read  what  several  others  have  published  over 
their  own  names,  on  this  subject.  It  cannot  be  that  such  men 
as  Giustiniani  ^  and  Ciocci,  ^  who  give  the  names  of  places 
and  individuals  with  such  frequency  and  particularity,  as 
well  as  dates,  would  have  dared  to  say  what  they  have  done, 
unless  the  facts  which  they  relate  were  true.  Their  books 
are  before  the  world.  Their  authors  appeal  boldly  to  many 
persons  in  Rome,  whom  they  name,  to  confirm  or  contradict 
the  assertions  which  they  make.  And  what  a  picture  do 
they  present,  not  only  of  the  dishonorable  and  dishonest 
measures  which  are  sometimes  resorted  to,  to  induce  young 
men  to  enter  these  establishments  as  novices,  *^  of  the  means 


39  Papal  Rome  as  it  is.  By  L.  Giustiniani,  D.  D.  Published  at  the  Publication 
Rooms  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  Baltimore,  1843. 

40  A  Narrative  of  Iniquities  and  Barbarities  practised  by  Papal  Rome  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  By  Raffaele  Ciocci,  formerly  a  Benedictine  and  Cistercian  monk,  Stu- 
dent and  Librarian  of  the  Papal  College  of  San  Bernardo,  alle  Terme  Diocleziane, 
in  Rome.     Philadelphia,  1844. 

41  Ciocci  entered  the  monastery  of  San  Bernardo,  at  Rome,  under  the  idea  that 
he  was  going  there  to  study  philosophy  for  two  years!  Both  himself  and  his  par- 
ents were  deceived,  though  the  latter  yielded  afterwards,  as  they  in  fact  wished 
him  to  pursue  the  monastic  life,  and  he  was  forced  to  remain  six  years  in  the 
clutches  of  the  monks,  before  he  could  escape.  The  interference  of  the  pope  was 
invoked  in  vain  for  his  rescue.    Willing  or  unwilling,  it  was  determined  to  make 


244  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

which  are  employed  to  overcome  the  reluctance  of  those  who 
abhor  the  life  of  a  monk,  and  of  the  criminal  and  shameful 
deeds  which  are  sometimes  perpetrated  within  their  walls.  ^ 

That  the  monasteries  and  convents  of  Italy  contain  a  great 
deal  of  gross  ignorance  of  the  true  nature  of  religion,  as  well 
as  of  all  true  science,  and  that  they  contain  also  much  shame- 
ful vice  and  atrocious  wickedness,  will  not  appear  surprising 
to  one  who  has  known  any  thing  of  the  history  of  such  estab- 
lishments from  the  first.  What  can  be  more  appalling  than 
the  state  in  which  the  late  Scipio  Ricci,  for  a  time  bishop  of 
Pistoia  and  Prato,  in  Tuscany,  found  those  of  his  diocess  ?  ^ 

The  fact  is,  the  monasteries  of  Italy,  of  every  religious 
order,  are  generally  well  endowed,  and  some  of  them  are 
very  rich  foundations,  created  by  the  gifts  and  bequests  of 
wealthy  men,  who,  living  or  dying,  have  thought  to  propitiate 
heaven  by  such  acts.  To  get  a  place  for  a  son  in  such  an 
institution,  where  he  is  sure  to  enjoy  pleasant  quarters  and  a 
comfortable,  and  even  luxurious  maintenance,  must  be  an 


him  a  monk.  His  Narrative  ought  to  be  read  by  all  who  wish  to  know  what  Rome 
is  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

42  Giustiniani  declares,  that  three  of  the  holy  fathers  of  the  monastery  in  which  he 
spent  three  months  at  Rome,  that  of  the  Minorites,  or  Cordeliers,  (a  branch  of  the 
Franciscans,)  committed  sodomy  upon  the  person  of  a  youth  of  sixteen,  one  of  the 
novices,  who,  after  having  undergone  such  brutality,  or  beastialily  rather,  was  left 
in  the  garret  to  die  of  hunger!  Papal  Rome  as  it  is,  pp.  152-154.  And  yet  the 
authors  of  this  monstrous  wickedness  were  not  punished  ;  they  were  only  removed 
to  another  monastery,  to  prevent  scandal ! 

Ciocci  does  not  merely  insinuate,  he  openly  asserts,  that  several  young  men  of 
his  monastery  were  taken  off  by  poison,  for  having  entered  into  an  association  to 
found  an  institution  in  which  the  Bible  should  be  read  and  followed  !  He  declares 
that  he  himself  was  near  losing  his  life  from  poison  !  He  asserts  that  Alberico 
Amatori,  the  author  of  the  scheme,  a  good  man,  was  sent  to  another  monastery, 
situated  in  an  unhealthy  place,  where  he  died  shortly  of  fever.  A  Narrative,  etc., 
pp.  54,  55. 

43  On  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  very  remarkable  work  of  M.  de 
Potter,  entitled  :  Vie  et  Me7noires  de  Scipion  Ricci;  published  in  Paris  and  Brussels, 
but  in  a  more  complete  form  in  the  latter,  and  translated  into  English,  by  T.  Roscoe, 
in  1829. 


MONASTERIES.  245 

object  dear  to  the  heart  of  many  a  father  in  that  country, 
where  the  priesthood  is  held  in  so  much  esteem,  and  where, 
owing  to  the  greatness  of  the  population,  and  the  want  of  fa- 
cilities for  acquiring  wealth,  the  difficulty  of  providing  well  for 
a  numerous  family  is  so  great.  On  the  other  hand,  the  '  holy 
fathers'  of  these  monasteries  are  ever  zealous  in  drawing 
into  them  young  men,  especially  those  who  possess  talents,  or 
are  heirs  to  considerable  estates,  for  the  triple  purpose  of 
promoting,  as  they  would  deem  it,  the  cause  of  the  Church, 
the  salvation  of  souls,  and  the  honor  and  resources  of  their 
respective  establishments.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  the  first 
and  the  last  of  these  reasons  are  far  more  powerful  than  the 
second. 

Each  monastery  has  a  superior,  a  prior,  and  a  certain 
number  of  monks,  besides  the  novices,  or  young  men  who  are 
passing  the  preliminary  period  of  trial,  and  of  study,  (in  those 
where  study  is  pursued,  such  as  the  Benedictine,  Barnabite, 
etc.)  The  number  of  members  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
revenue  which  each  possesses.  Some  of  these  establishments, 
which  have  extensive  accommodations  and  large  revenues, 
have  many  inmates.  Others  again,  whose  incomes  are  small, 
have  but  few.  The  authority  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the 
superior,  who  is  aided,  however,  by  the  prior,  who  is  the 
chaplain  and  generally  the  confessor  of  the  establishment, 
and  the  monks,  especially  those  who  are  the  most  advanced 
in  age.  The  whole  are  often  spoken  of  under  the  designa- 
tion of  the  '  holy  fathers.'  The  superiors  and  priors  are 
chosen,  in  most  of  the  orders,  for  five  years,  at  a  convocation 
of  all  the  superiors  of  their  respective  orders.  The  general 
of  each  order  is  chosen  on  the  same  occasions  by  the  assem- 
bled superiors.  And  the  affairs  of  all  the  orders,  including 
all  complaints  and  appeals,  are  discussed,  and  decided  upon 
by  the  '  Holy  Convocation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,'  which 
21* 


246  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

meets  from  time  to  time  in  Rome,  and  over  whose  delibera- 
tions the  pope  presides,  and  whose  decisions  he  signs. "" 

That  some  of  the  monks  are  seriouslj-minded,  have  truly 
religious  dispositions,  and  are  sincerely  endeavoring  to  serve 
Ood,  although  in  a  very  mistaken  way,  we  firmly  believe. 
There  are  some  instances,  even  in  Rome  itself,  of  monks  who 
seem  to  be  spiritually-minded,  and  love  the  Word  of  God. 
Alas,  these  cases,  we  have  reason  to  fear,  are  very  few.  On 
the  contrary,  pride,  envy,  jealousy,  indolence,  voluptuousness, 
lust,  and  other  vices,  reign  to  an  awful  extent  in  these  estab- 
lishments. And  how  could  it  be  otherwise  ?  Excepting  the 
comparatively  small  number  who  enter  from  a  consciousness 
of  human  infirmity,  and  a  desire  to  escape  the  temptations 
and  sins  of  the  world,  those  who  join  these  establishments, 
especially  in  Italy,  seem  to  do  it  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
a  comfortable,  if  not  a  luxurious  support  for  life.  The 
monks  and  the  convicts  are,  in  fact,  almost  the  only  persons  in 
that  country  who  are  sure  of  a  living.  And  whatever  may 
be  the  labors  and  sufferings  of  the  latter,  it  is  certain  that 
the  duties  of  the  former,  though  mechanically  performed,  as 
they  too  frequently  are,  cannot  be  considered  very  onerous. 
Some  monks  there  are  in  all  parts  of  Italy,  who  are  worthy 
of  great  praise  for  their  benevolent  spirit,  and  their  abundant 
labors  in  visiting  the  poor  and  the  sick  in  the  neighborhoods 
of  their  respective  monasteries  —  one  of  the  objects  for  which 
such  establishments  were  originally  created.  But  the  most 
of  the  monastic  herd  have  no  such  reputation.  They  have 
not  even  the  credit  of  being  benevolent.  It  may  indeed  be 
said,  that  their  vow  of  poverty  leaves  them  in  possession  of 

44  Ciocci,  in  his  Narrative,  p.  74,  gives  a  singular  instance  of  the  justice  which 
reigns  in  this  Holy  Convocation,  and  guides  its  decisions,  when  he  tells  the  world 
that  this  august  tribunal  annulled  his  monastic  vows,  and  yet  declared  that  he 
might  never  marry,  because  he  had  been  for  a  time  a  monk,  though  contrary  to  his 
will!  However,  this  is  not  worse  than  a  decision  in  a  French  court,  a  few  years 
.ago,  relating  to  a  case  similar  in  its  main  features. 


MONASTERIES.  247 

nothing.  But  this  is  not  strictly  true  in  most  cases,  and  if  it 
were,  the  resources  of  the  monasteries  are  sufficient  to  put 
their  members  in  possession  of  the  means  of  doing  something 
to  relieve  the  wants  of  those  who  are  compelled  to  beg. 
Doubtless  something  is  done  to  relieve  the  wants  of  those 
who  go  to  the  monasteries  to  beg  bread,  but  it  is  a  singular 
fact,  that  has  been  noticed  by  others  as  well  as  ourselves,  that 
the  poor  beggars  who  sit  in  rags  at  the  corners  of  the  streets 
in  Rome  and  Naples,  unable  to  walk,  and  imploring  alms  in 
the  name  of  God  and  all  the  saints,  instantly  cease  from  their 
appeals,  and  bow  their  heads  in  reverent  silence,  if  a  priest 
or  a  monk  pass  by,  even  although  he  deign  not  to  bestow  the 
slightest  attention  upon  them.  ^^ 

No  manner  of  life  can  be  more  monotonous  than  that  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  monks  in  Italy,  save  that  of  a  con- 
vict in  a  treadmill  or  a  penitentiary.  Twice  to  the  chapel 
every  day,  once  a  week  to  the  confessional  and  to  the  com- 
munion, read  a  few  paragraphs  of  the  breviary  at  certain 
hours,  —  this  is  something  like  the  routine  of  most  of  the 
members  of  the  monasteries  in  that  country.  It  must  be 
said,  however,  that  there  is  no  want  of  good  cheer  at  their 
tables.  The  best  of  coffee  or  chocolate  for  breakfast ;  a  glass 
of  wine  and  a  biscuit  for  luncheon ;  excellent  soup,  roast  and 
boiled  meat,  fruit,  cheese,  bread  in  abundance,  and  wine  at 
discretion  for  dinner;  pappina  (a  species  of  soup),  a  portion 
of  meat  or  fish,  salad,  cheese,  and  fruit,  for  supper,  —  such 
was  the  fare  of  the  poor  monks,  according  to  Ciocci,  ^  of  the 
monastery  of  San  Bernardo,  at  Rome.  On  festivals  and  holy- 
days  it  was  even  better.  Certainly,  poor  as  such  fare  is,  it  is 
sufficient  to  keep  them  from  absolute  starvation !     We  found 

45  See  Memoranda  of  Foreign  Travel^hy  Rev.  R.J.  Breckinridge,  D.  D.j  vol.  i.  pp. 
164-167. 

46  Narrative  of  Iniquities  and  Barbarities  of  Rome,  etc.  p.  29. 


248  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

the  impression  to  be  general  in  Italy,  right  or  wrong,  that 
the  holy  fathers  of  the  monasteries  live  well. 

But  in  whatever  way  the  worldly  spirit  which  prevails  at 
present  in  the  monasteries  in  Italy  may  manifest  itself,  and 
whatever  variety  there  may  be  in  the  vices  which  reign 
in  them,  there  is  one  thing  that  is  uniformly  found  there, 
namely,  an  extreme  vigilance  to  exclude  every  thing  like  the 
glorious  gospel  of  Christ,  the  '  Truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus.'  *  I 
once  asked  for  a  Bible,'  says  Dr.  Giustiniani,  '  and  the  father 
confessor  promised  me  one ;  but  as  he  never  attended  to  his 
promises,  I  renewed  my  request  after  a  few  days,  when  he 
refused,  saying,  '  that  I  must  read  such  hooks  as  edify,  and 
make  a  good  Franciscan  friar,  and  not  the  Bible,  which  luould 
only  satisfy  my  pride  and  carnal  mind.^^  Just  so;  Rome 
desires  not  so  much  to  make  true  Christians,  as  to  proselyte 
and  gain  partisans,  and  in  so  doing  she  gives  manifest  proofs 
of  being  a  reprobate  Church,  according  to  the  decision  of  our 
blessed  Lord,  in  relation  to  the  conduct  of  the  Pharisees. 
Math.  23:  15. 

Next  to  their  hatred  of  every  thing  which  they  call  heresy, 
(by  which  they  especially  designate  whatever  resembles 
Protestantism,)  is  the  jealousy  and  the  aversion  which  the 
different  orders  of  Rome  display  towards  one  another.  *  The 
Religious  Orders,'  says  Ciocci,  '  which  Rome  has  made  it  her 
care  to  multiply  under  her  banner,  esteeming  them  her  Jani- 
zaries, jealous  of  each  other's  power,  are  constantly  at  war 
among  themselves ;  in  one  point  only  do  they  agree  —  that  of 
laying  aside  their  private  animosities  for  the  purpose  of  act- 
ing in  unison  against  the  secular  clergy.  Numerous  as  are 
her  divisions,  Rome  boasts  the  unity  of  which  she  makes 
herself  the  centre  —  as  if  speculative  unity  was  sufficient  — 
and  as  though  charity  were  not  requisite  to  form  the  unity  of 

47  Papai  Rome  as  it  is,  p.  151. 


MONASTERIES.  249 

that  body  of  whicli  St.  Paul  speaks  in  the  twelfth  chapter  of 
Romans,  v.  5  :  "  So  we,  being  many,  are  one  body  in  Christ, 
and  every  one  members  one  of  another."  Are  the  divisions 
with  which  she  reproaches  Christians,  who  protest  against 
her,  contrary  to  the  unity  of  faith  and  charity  ?  The  causes 
of  the  division  between  brotherhood  and  brotherhood,  and 
between  these  and  the  priests,  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  are 
strikingly  worldly ;  they  are  to  be  traced  to  pride,  avarice, 
turpitude.  The  unity  of  the  Romish  Faith  has  man  for  its 
centre,  and  the  means  by  which  the  parts  are  united,  are  also 
of  themselves  merely  human  —  force,  chains,  persecutions. 
Is  there  not  in  the  Evangelical  Church,  w^hich  Rome  calls 
heretical,  the  true  unity  ?  The  Bible  is  the  common  centre, 
and  the  Bible  is  the  word  of  God.'  ^ 

When  we  consider  the  motives  which  have  influenced  the 
greater  part  of  those  who  are  pursuing  the  monastic  life  to 
enter  these  establishments,  and  the  little  instruction  of  a 
truly  scriptural  and  spiritual  character  which  they  receive 
there,  we  cannot  greatly  wonder  that  the  monasteries  in  Italy 
should  contain  so  much  ignorance,  immorality,  and  infi- 
delity. ^^  It  is  a  mode  of  life  which  cannot  be  considered  as 
favorable  to  the  highest  attainments  in  virtue,  w^hich  can 
only  be  reached  by'the  courageous  and  faithful  performance 
of  the  duties  which  we  owe  to  God,  and  to  our  fellow-men. 
A  cowardly  shrinking  from  these,  under  the  pretence  of 
withdrawing  from  the  temptations  of  the  world,  merits  a  very 


48  Narrative  of  Iniquities  and  Barbarities,  etc.,  pp.  69,  70. 

49  An  English  gentleman  who  had  resided  long  in  Italy,  and  obtained  lodgings  in 
a  monastery,  was  frequently  engaged  in  friendly  discussions  with  the  most  intelli- 
gent individuals  of  the  house,  on  points  of  difference  between  the  Churches  of 
Rome  and  England.  On  the  termination  of  one  of  these  disputes,  after  the  greater 
part  of  the  company  had  retired,  a  young  monk,  who  had  supported  the  tenets  of 
his  Church  with  great  ability,  turning  to  his  English  guest,  asked  him  if  he  really 
believed  what  he  had  been  defending.  On  his  answering  seriously  in  the  affirma- 
tive, the  monk  exclaimed,  '  Allor  lei  crede  piu  che  tutto  il  convento.  —  Then,  Sir, 
you  believe  more  than  the  whole  convent.'  —  Doblado's  Letters,  p.  476. 


250 


ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 


different  epithet  than  virtuous  or  holy.  Among  the  Itahans 
themselves,  the  life  of  a  monk  is  far  from  being  considered  a 
very  honorable  one,  by  a  large  portion  of  the  intelligent  and 
elevated  classes.  Even  the  courteous  and  more  refined 
Jesuit  looks  down  with  contempt  upon  the  monks ;  for 
although  he  has  taken  the  same  vow  of  poverty  ^  which  all 
the  monks  take,  yet  he  prides  himself  upon  his  more  citizen- 
like and  gentlemanly  costume  and  appearance,  (which  cer- 
tainly does  contrast  favorably  with  the  grotesque  and  beg- 
garly garb  of  the  monks,)  as  well  as  upon  the  more  simple 
and  common-sense  style  of  living  which  prevails  in  the 
Houses  of  the  Professed,  than  in  the  prison-like  monasteries, 
conducted  with  the  strictness  which  reigns  in  a  college  of 
half-grown  and  unruly  youths,  and  where  a  religious  life  has 
all  the  gloominess  which  attaches  to  that  of  an  ascetic  and  an 
anchorite. 

X.      Character  of  the  Religion  of  the  Italians. 

That  the  religion  of  a  people  takes  more  or  less  of  a  cer- 
tain hue  from  their  peculiar  character,  is  a  fact  too  well 
established  to  be  denied. 

It  has  been  remarked  by  distinguished  authors  who  have 
written  of  the  Spanish  people,  that  their  religious  views  and 
feelings  are  closely  allied  to  their  ideas  of  chivalry,  or  rather 
have  been  moulded  by  the  chivalrous  and  warlike  spirit  of 
that  people.  With  them,  Christianity,  or  in  other  words  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  —  for  they  have  no  conception  of 


50  This  vow  of  poverty  originally  obliged  those  who  took  it,  literally  to  depend 
upon  charity,  and  often  compelled  them  to  ask  it.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  epithet 
mendicant.  But  the  monks,  who  now-a-days  reside  in  the  rich  establishments 
which  the  gifts  of  the  people,  or  of  the  princes  of  a  less  enlightened  and  more  su- 
perstitious age  for  the  most  part  founded,  have  discovered  an  easy  vi^ay  to  fulfd  the 
task  of  begging,  to  which  they  consider  their  vow  as  still  binding  them.  It  is 
enough  to  turn  out  and  beg  the  meanest  trifle  once  a  year,  —  as,  for  instance,  a 
handful  of  meal,  a  bunch  of  grapes,  or  a  few  grains  of  salt! 


RELIGIOUS    CHARACTER.  251 

any  other  species  of  Christianity,  —  is  associated  with  the 
wars  which  their  ancestors  carried  on  with  the  infidel  Moors, 
three  hundred  years  ago,  in  the  days  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella, the  Catholic,  a  period  in  the  history  of  the  country 
which  has  been  celebrated  in  song,  as  emphatically  the  reign 
of  chivalry;  when  the  valiant  Christian  knight  met  the 
Moslem  warrior,  on  the  field  of  battle,  not  only  to  vindicate 
his  religion,  but  also  to  avenge  the  insults  which  proud  Cas- 
tilian  maids  had  suffered  from  Moorish  tyrants.  To  be  an 
'  infidel '  or  '  heretic '  is  to  be  something  more  in  the  estima- 
tion of  a  Spaniard,  than  the  enemy  of  his  religion,  —  that  of 
the  '  Holy,  Apostolical,  Catholic  Church,'  —  it  is  equivalent 
to  being  also  an  enemy  of  his  country,  and  the  friend  of  its 
ancient  enemies.  It  is  to  be  even  more  than  that ;  it  is  to  be 
not  only  the  enemy  of  his  religion  and  his  country,  but  the 
enemy  of  his  fair,  his  idolized  countrywomen. 

The  Spaniard  loves  the  Madonna,  not  only  because  she 
was  the  mother  of  the  Saviour,  but  because  his  imagination 
conceives  her  to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  women,  the  very 
prototype,  as  it  were,  of  the  dulcinea  whom  he  not  only  loves 
but  adores.  His  religion  partakes  of  all  this,  and  is  a  com- 
pound, of  which  the  ingredients  are  a  species  of  indefinable 
reverence  for  the  Divine  Being,  heroic  patriotism,  and  chiv- 
ah'ic  adoration  of  the  fair  sex.  And  to  kill  heretics  and 
exterminate  heresy,  he  feels  that  not  only  duty  to  God  and 
His  cause,  but  also  patriotism  and  chivalry  unite  in  calling 
him. 

But  the  type  of  an  Italian's  religion  differs  greatly  from 
that  of  the  Iberian.  To  his  mind  Christianity  invests  itself 
with  no  such  associations  as  those  which  it  wears  in  the  view 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Western  Peninsula.  With  him  it  is 
connected  rather  with  the  fine  arts.  In  Italy,  the  Catholic 
religion  has  had  undisturbed,  and  almost  undisputed,  posses- 
sion for  many,  many  centuries.     It  has  had  no  crusades  to 


252  ITALY    SINCE    THE   REFORMATION. 

make,  in  order  to  expel  from  those  shores  hostile  Musselmen. 
It  has  flourished  there  in  peace,  and  been  promoted  by  the 
fine  arts,  which  are  emphatically  arts  of  peace.     It  is  asso- 
ciated, in  the  feelings  of  the  less  warlike  Italians,  with  fine 
churches,  whose  exterior  displays  an  admirable  architecture, 
and  whose  interior  is  adorned  with  every  thing  which  can 
please  the  taste.     Proud  columns  of  marble  sustain  the  beau- 
tiful arches  which  uphold  the  painted  vault,  and  the  noble 
dome.      Various   marbles,  wrought   into   mosaics,  form   the 
floor.     Splendid  pictures  and  statues  adorn  the  chapels  on 
each  side.     The  choir,  with  its  beautifully  carved  seats,  where 
priests  recite  the  prayers  of  the  various  services,  and  the 
prescribed   portions   of    Scripture,   with   their   peculiar   ca- 
dences ;  the  great  altar,  at  which  mass  is  often  said  with  so 
much  pomp  and  circumstance  ;  the  gorgeous  robes  of  the 
priests ;  the  sweet  odors  of  frankincense,  which  exhale  from 
burning  censers ;  and  the  sweeter  strains  of  delicious  music ; 
all  these  concur  to  form  associations  in  the  mind  of  an  Italian 
Roman    Catholic,   which   are    perfectly   enchanting.      The 
pleasurable  emotions  which  these  striking  objects  of  sense 
excite,  are,  there  is  reason  to  fear,  habitually  mistaken  by 
multitudes  for  that  devotion  of  the  heart  which  God  requires. 
The  religion  of  the  people  of  Italy   is  emphatically  the 
religion  of  sentiment ;  and  every  fine  art,  —  painting,  music, 
architecture,  sculpture,  —  has  been  rendered  tributary  to  it. 
To  enjoy  the  above-described  sweet  emotions,  when  connected 
with  the  services  of  the  Church,  which  these  create  in  warm 
and  excitable  temperaments,  is  the  highest  religious  happi- 
ness, in  the  estimation  of  the  masses  in  that  country,  who 
have  a  capacity  to  enjoy  them.     But  these  feelings,  however 
pleasant,  having  nothing  in  them  of  the  nature  of  true  hoi  - 
ness,  and  being  withal  extremely  evanescent,  it  is  not  won- 
derful that  those,  whose  religion    consists   mainly  in  them, 
should  experience  nothing  of  that  moral  renovation  which 


STATE    OF    MORALITY.  253 

thej  so  much  need,  nor  of  that  internal  peace  which  flows 
from  faith,  not  in  a  cross  of  wood,  but  in  Him  who  died  on  a 
cross  for  our  sins.  And  here  is  the  grand  defect  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  It  consists  too  much  in  the  emo- 
tions which  are  created  by  sensible  objects,  or  exciting  pic- 
tures presented  to  the  imagination,  by  the  perpetual  refer- 
ence to  material  things,  made  by  preachers  and  confessors, 
and  too  little  in  those  intelligible  and  purifying  feelings  of 
true  sorrow  for  sin,  of  faith  in  Christ,  and  of  love  to  the  infi- 
nitely blessed  and  glorious  Jehovah,  which  nothing  but  the 
Holy  Spirit  can  produce  in  the  heart  of  any  man. 

XI.     State  of  Morality  in  Italy. 

That  the  morals  of  a  people  will  correspond  with  their 
religion,  is  a  position  which  none  will  be  so  hardy  as  to  deny. 
This  being  the  case,  what,  we  may  be  allowed  to  ask,  could 
we  expect  the  morality  of  Italy  to  be  ?  Certainly  not  of  a 
very  elevated  character.  A  heathenized  Christianity,  a 
religion  in  which  an  idolatry  almost  as  gross  as  that  of  the 
ancient  Eomans  and  Greeks,  is  taught  to  a  people  for  the 
most  part  ignorant  and  degraded,  cannot  be  expected  to  pro- 
duce an  elevated  morality.  What  can  we  hope  from  the 
moral  teachings  of  a  Church,  which  still  attempts  to  deceive 
the  people  with  lying  wonders,  with  absurd  miracles,^  con- 


51  In  the  city  of  Naples  is  annually  exhibited  the  ridiculous'farce  of  the  liquefac- 
tion of  the  blood  of  St.  Gennaro,  or  Januarius.  This  saint,  according  to  tradition, 
after  having  been  bishop  for  several  years  of  Benevento,  was  beheaded  at  Pozzu- 
oli,  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  He  early  became  the  patron  of  Naples. 
[  It  is  said  that  his  body  lies  in  the  cathedral,  bat  that  his  head,  and  a  vial  filled  w^ith. 
his  blood,  are  in  a  chapel.  The  priests  pretend  that  this  blood  liquefies  on  the 
saint's  day,  the  first  Sabbath  in  May,  as  on  two  other  occasions  annually.  If  it  turn 
very  red  and  becomes  quite  liquid,  it  is  a  good  omen.     But  if  it  melt  with  difficulty 

I  and  remain  blackish,  it  bodes  evil.  If  it  melt  not  at  all,  consternation  seizes  the 
vast  multitude  assembled  to  witness  the  scene  !  This  happened,  it  is  said,  when 
the  French  took  possession  of  Naples,  in  the  days  of  Napoleon.    But  the  command- 

22 


254  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

trived  by  priestly  cunning,  in  order  to  hold  in  bondage  weak 
and  superstitious  souls,  and  which  are  even  the  subjects  of 
ridicule  among  the  well-informed  ? 

That  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  upon 
the  manners  and  lives  of  the  people  of  Italy  is  not  likely  to  be 
very  salutary,  will  appear  quite  probable  when  we  consider 
how  little  calculated  it  is  to  secure  that  effect.  Instead  of 
inculcating  the  duty  of  reading  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  which 
are  the  only  true  source  of  all  sound  moral  instruction,  —  for 
they  contain  the  only  revelation  which  God  has  given  to  man, 
and  impart  unto  us  the  knowledge  which  we  need,  of  the  ex- 
istence and  character  of  our  Creator,  of  our  relations  to  him, 
of  our  duties  to  him  and  to  our  fellow-men,  and  of  the  way 
by  which  we  may  secure  his  favor  and  eternal  life,  ■ —  Rome 
sends  the  people  to  the  perusal  of  the  lives  of  the  saints,  and 
books  of  a  similar  stamp,  ^^  and  deprives  them  of  the  Sacred 
Oracles,  save  the  portions  which  are  to  be  found  in  her  ser- 
vice-books, the  missal  and  the  breviary.  Under  the  pretence 
that  there  are  passages  in  the  Word  of  God  which  should  not 
be  read  by  the  common  people,  she  in  effect  deprives  them 


ing  general,  knowing  that  the  city  would  soon  be  in  a  state  of  riot,  sent  a  message 
to  the  archbishop,  to  the  effect,  that  if  the  blood  of  St.  Januarius  did  not  melt  very 
promptly,  his  (the  archbishop's)  should  flow  in  its  stead.  The  miracle  soon  took 
place  !  The  scenes  which  annually  occur  at  the  chapel  of  this  saint,  the  violent 
prayers  and  imprecations,  if  the  priests  do  not  cause  the  blood  to  liquefy  promptly, 
beggar  all  description,  and  recall  the  mad  revelry  of  similar  ones  among  the  ancient 
pagans.  But  other  things  equally  silly  are  done  in  all  parts  of  Italy  in  the  name  of 
Christianity.  Pieces  of  the  true  cross,  the  table  around  which  the  Saviour  and  his 
disciples  partook  of  the  Passover  for  the  last  time,  the  chain  with  which  Peter  was 
bound,  the  stairs  which  belonged  to  the  house  of  Pilate,  pictures  of  the  Virgin  made 
by  St.  Luke,  etc.,  etc.,  besides  the  bones  of  innumerable  martyrs,  are  still  shown,  as 
things  of  great  efficacy,  at  Rome,  as  they  were  three  hundred  years  ago.  And 
what  did  Rome  in  the  middle  ages,  that  was  worse  than  the  late  exhibition  of  the 
Saviour's  coat,  at  Treves? 

52  VVe  saw  among  the  Tracts,  which  the  priests  distribute  among  the  people  at 
Florence,  one  in  praise  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  was  in  the  shape  of  her  foot,  and 
was  exactly  its  length  and  breadth ! 


STATE    OF    MORALITY.  255 

of  the  whole  volume,  just  as  if  our  heavenly  Father  did  not 
know  how  to  make  a  book  which  might  be  read  with  safety 
by  those  for  whom  it  was  intended !  And  what  is  the  conse- 
quence ?  It  is,  that  wherever  the  Bible  is  unknown,  there 
the  very  vices,  which  those  parts  of  it  that  Rome  thinks  dan- 
gerous expose  and  condemn,  abound  to  an  awful  degree,  and 
are  even  to  be  found,  as  we  have  already  stated,  within  the 
walls  of  the  monasteries ! 

Secondly,  instead  of  bringing  the  great  truths  of  God's 
Word  as  frequently  and  directly  as  possible  into  contact  with 
the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people,  from  the  pulpit,  and  in 
the  Bible-class  and  Sunday  school,  Rome  contents  herself 
greatly  w^ith  liturgical  services,  in  a  language  unknown  to 
the  people ;  whilst  preaching  forms  but  a  small  part  of  what 
is  done  in  the  house  of  God.  Matins,  vespers,  and  high 
mass,  are  the  principal  public  services  in  most  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  save  on  extraordinary  occasions,  festivals 
and  holy  seasons,  such  as  Lent,  etc. 

Again.  Instead  of  sending  the  awakened  sinner  directly  to 
God,  teaching  him  that  there  is  no  intercessor  but  Jesus  Christ, 
and  urging  him  truly  to  confess  his  sins  to  God,  sincerely  to 
repent  of  them,  and  humbly  to  ask  for  their  forgiveness  for 
the  sake  of  Christ's  merits,  Rome  interposes  a  human  con- 
fessor and  a  confessional,  and  whatever  may  have  been  her 
original  purpose  in  all  this,  the  eiFect  upon  the  masses  is,  to 
lead  them  to  believe  that,  having  confessed  to  a  priest  and 
received  absolution,  all  is  right.  As  this  can  take  place 
without  a  change  of  heart,  or  the  springing  up  in  the  soul  of 
holy  emotions  and  resolutions,  it  is  not  surprising  to  hear  of 
the  bandit  and  pirate,  as  well  as  the  public  woman,  returning 
from  the  confessional  to  their  wicked  pursuits,  apparently 
with  the  full  assurance  that  the  old  score  of  sins  is  cancelled, 
and  a  new  one  may  be  commenced  when  it  suits  their  desires 
and  their  convenience. 


25 G  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

And,  lastly.  To  destroy  what  little  there  may  remain  of 
moral  restraint,  there  comes  in  the  doctrine  of  indulgences, 
dispensations,  etc.,  by  which  the  principles  of  eternal  justice 
are  suspended,  to  allow  the  evil-doer  greater  latitude  for 
doing  what  it  would  not  be  otherwise  lawful  for  him  to  do. 

Can  we  wonder,  after  considering  all  this,  that  immorality 
should  prevail  greatly  in  countries  where  the  Romaji  Catho- 
lic Church  is  dominant,  and  especially  in  Italy,  where  it  is 
completely  so  ?  Would  it  not  be  marvellous  if  it  were  other- 
wise? 

Including  pope,  cardinals,  patriarchs,  archbishops,  bishops, 
generals  of  orders,  superiors,  priors,  monks,  nuns,  it  has  been 
computed  that  in  Italy  there  is  one  person  consecrated  to 
religion,  on  an  average,  for  forty-five  inhabitants.  Now,  pos- 
sessing such  a  moral  force  as  this,  if  Rome  is  indeed  the  true 
and  only  Church  of  Christ,  and  He  really  dwells  in  her,  Italy 
ought  to  be  the  holiest  land  on  earth,  for  no  other  country  is 
go  abundantly  provided  for,  as  it  regards  religious  teachers. 
But  is  Italy  the  holiest  land  on  the  earth  ?  If  it  be  so,  all 
we  have  to  say  is,  that  she  is  the  most  enormously  slandered 
country  in  the  world ;  for  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
she  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the  most  immoral,  if  not  the  most 
so,  of  all  portions  of  Christendom,  at  least,  so  far  as  the  Old 
World  is  concerned. 

And  what  is  absolutely  confounding  is  the  fact,  that  in  pro- 
portion as  you  approach  the  city  of  Rome,  come  from  which 
end  of  Italy  you  may,  bad  government,  physical  desolation, 
poverty,  ignorance,  irreligion,  vice,  crime,  all  increase  !  This 
is  inexplicable.  And  when  you  reach  Rome,  and  enter 
within  the  walls  of  the  Eternal  City,  you  will  find  less  of 
true  piety  and  purity  of  morals  than  in  any  other  city  in  all 
Christendom,  if  we  may  credit  the  testimony  of  Romans 
themselves. 

When  we  visited  Rome,  in  the  year  1837,  one  of  the  first 


STATE    OF   MORALITY.  257 

things  we  heard  the  distinguished  individuals,  both  natives 
and  foreigners,  to  whom  we  bore  letters  of  introduction  say, 
was,  that  we  had  come  to  the  worst  place  within  all  the  limits 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  world  to  see  what  religion  is.  This 
remark  is  heard  by  strangers  from  all  quarters,  upon  their 
arrival  in  Rome.  And  yet  that  city  is  the  abode  of  the  so- 
styled  Vicar  of  Christ,  the  centre  of  the  whole  Christian 
world,  the  seat  of  all  the  mighty  influences  which  the  Vatican 
sends  forth  throughout  the  earth  !  Why  is  this  ?  We  leave 
to  others  to  assign  the  reasons,  for  we  cannot,  upon  the  sup- 
position that  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  a  true  type  and 
expression  of  the  gospel. 

As  to  the  alleged  immoralities  which  prevail  in  Italy,  in- 
cluding infidelity  to  the  marriage  relation,  ^  the  absence  of 
domestic  happiness  in  so  many  families,  the  want  of  strict 
honesty  in  the  business  classes,  the  want  of  female  virtue  in 
the  large  cities  and  towns,  etc.,  etc.,  we  will  not  undertake 
to  speak  of  them.  That  there  is  much  vice' — less  open, 
indeed,  than  in  most  other  countries,  it  is  true  ^-  in  Italy,  is 
what  is  conceded  by  all.  That  the  state  of  things  is  much 
better,  in  this  respect,  than  it  was  three  centuries  ago,  we 
seriously  doubt.  The  same  superstitions,^  and  the  same 
sins  prevail  now  as  at  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation. 


53  In  relation  to  the  custom  of  a  married  lady's  having  her  cicisbeo^  or  cavaliere  ser- 
vante,  who  waits  on  her  in  society  and  at  public  amusements,  whilst  it  still  exists 
in  all  parts  of  Italy,  it  has  greatly  declined  at  Rome,  where  we  were  assured  by 
excellent  citizens,  that  the  presence  of  so  many  Protestants  with  their  families,  from 
England,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  America,  and  who,  taken  as  a  body,  exhibit 
a  domestic  life  incomparably  better  than  that  of  the  people  of  that  city,  has  had  the 
effect  of  nearly  banishing  it  from  society. 

54  Crowds  of  poor  deluded  people  still  go  up  the  Scala  Santa,  or  stairs  of  Pontius 
Pilate's  house,  as  in  the  time  when  Luther  visited  the  Eternal  City,  more  than 
three  hundred  years  ago.  We  doubt  whether  the  number  has  at  all  diminished. 
Would  that  the  same  effect  might  be  produced  on  their  minds,  as  was  produced  on 
that  of  the  Reformer ! 

22* 


258  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

XII.     Encouraging  Signs  in  relation  to  Italy. 

But,  dark  as  is  the  religious  and  moral  picture  of  Italy, 
there  are  some  lighter  shades  which  we  may  contemplate 
with  pleasure.  We  shall  endeavor  to  present  them  to  the 
eye  of  the  reader. 

1.  It  is  well  known  that  there  are  two  classes  of  people 
who  are  tired  of  Romanism,  one  composed  of  those  intelligent 
and  ardent  minds  who  detest  tyranny,  and  eai-nestly  desire  to 
see  their  country  put  in  possession  of  constitutional  and  well- 
regulated  liberty.  These  all,  more  or  less,  abhor  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy,  and  especially  the  papacy,  because  it  has 
hitherto,  and  in  all  circumstances,  been  the  friend  and  sup- 
porter of  despotism.  This  fact  the  Abbe  de  la  Mennais  has 
admirably  exposed,  in  his  work  entitled  Rome.  And  in  that 
same  work  he  has  faithfully  warned  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  of  the  danger  which  will  result  from  such  a  position. 
Vhe  other  class  comprehends  those  seriously-minded  and 
well-informed  people  who  have  sought  in  vain,  in  the  bosom 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  for  a  religion  such  as  their 
immortal  spirits  demand.  The  inability  of  Rome  to  meet  the 
spiritual  wants  of  humanity  has  been  demonstrated  by  an 
increased  experience  of  three  centuries.  And  this  has 
become  still  more  apparent  to  those  in  Italy  who  have  had 
some  opportunities  to  learn  the  simple,  evangelical,  elevating, 
transforming  nature  of  the  Protestant  religion,  as  presented 
in  the  writings  of  the  Reformers,  and  those  who  have  since 
their  day  held  the  same  Faith.  These  two  classes  of  persons, 
though  comparatively  small,  are  not  inconsiderable ;  and  they 
are  prepared  to  welcome  a  purer  religion  when  it  shall  be 
presented  to  them. 

And  though  we  do  not  attach  so  much  importance  to  the 
fact  as  some  others,  (because  of  his  very  limited  power  and 
influence,)  yet  it  ought  to  be  mentioned,  that  the  Duke  of 


ENCOURAGING    SIGNS.  259 

Lucca  is  no  longer  a  Roman  Catholic ;  he  is  in  reality  a  Prot- 
estant. ^^  Upon  the  death  of  the  present  Duchess  of  Parma, 
he  will  succeed  her,  if  he  should  survive  her,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  that  duchy,  which  is  much  more  extensive  and  im- 
portant than  that  of  Lucca.  What  evidence  this  prince  gives 
in  his  life  and  conversation,  of  having  savingly  received  the 
grace  of  God,  we  are  not  able  to  say ;  but  of  one  thing  we  are 
assured,  which  is,  that  there  is  one  country  in  Italy,  however 
small  it  may  be,  in  which  the  Protestant  religion  will  not  be 
persecuted,  so  long  as  he  reigns  over  it. 

2.  A  very  laudable  and  growing  interest  in  the  subject  of 
education,  is  certainly  felt  by  a  number  of  excellent  persons 
in  Italy,  especially  in  Tuscany.  The  establishment  of  Infant 
schools  at  Florence,  Pisa,  and  Leghorn  is  decisive  proof  of 
this.  There  is  also  further  proof  of  it,  in  the  publication  of 
an  able  monthly  journal  in  the  first-named  city,  called  Annali 
deir  Educazione,  which  is  conducted  in  an  enlightened  and 
Christian  spirit.  Education  is  also  making  progress  in  the 
Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  as  we  have  shown. 

3.  One  of  the  most  encouraging  facts  in  relation  to  Italy, 
is  the  desire,  which  is  manifesting  itself  in  various  parts,  to 
possess  the  Scriptures  in  the  Italian  language.  This  is  a  very 
remarkable  fact.  When  the  French  overran  that  country, 
under  the  command  of  Napoleon  as  a  general  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and  afterwards,  when  he  conquered  and  governed  it  as 
First  Consul  and  Emperor  of  France,  there  was  a  great 
demand  every  where  for  books  filled  with  infidelity.  Whole 
editions  of  Voltaire,  Diderot,  Volney,  etc.,  were  carried  from 
Paris  into  Italy  during  that  period,  for  the  French  govern- 
ment interposed   no  obstacle.      Some   of    the  worst  things 


55  The  reigning  Duke  of  Lucca  is  Charles  Louis,  who  was  born  the  22d  of  De- 
cember, 1799.  He  is  an  offshoot  of  the  royal  family  of  Spain.  He  received  favora- 
ble impressions  of  the  Protestant  religion  whilst  travelling  in  Germany,  several 
years  ago,  and  chiefly  from  the  conversations  of  a  Protestant  pastor. 


260  ITALY    SINCE    THE   REFORMATION. 

contained  in  the  writings  of  those  authors,  were  translated 
into  the  Italian  language  and  published  at  Paris,  and  in  Italy 
too.  Several  distinguished  authors  arose  in  that  country 
during  that  period,  whose  writings  are  decidedly  anti- 
religious. 

But  a  better  day  has  dawned  even  upon  Italy.  There  is 
a  thirst  excited  in  many  souls  for  the  pure  Word  of  life.  And 
thousands  of  copies  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  now  annually 
introduced  into  that  country,  and  readily  find  purchasers  and 
readers.  At  what  point  these  Bibles  (and  we  may  add  other 
religious  books  and  tracts)  are  entering  Italy,  we  shall  not 
undertake  to  indicate ;  it  is  sufficient  that  we  state  what  we 
know  to  be  a  fact. 

That  books,  which  the  pope  causes  to  be  put  in  the  Index 
do  get  into  Italy,  is  certain,  and  sometimes  in  considerable 
numbers.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  police  of  no  part 
of  Italy  is  amenable  to  the  pope,  but  that  of  his  own  little 
kingdom.  The  police-officers  of  the  other  states  are  under 
no  more  obligation  to  obey  his  will  than  are  those  of  any 
other  country.  The  pope  has  no  other  than  a  moral  influ- 
ence over  them.  And  before  he  can  reasonably  expect  them 
to  execute  his  wishes  faithfully,  he  ought  to  be  assured  of  the 
fidelity  of  those  of  his  own  dominions.  It  will  take  some- 
thing better  than  Romanism  to  secure  that  result,  or  we  are 
greatly  mistaken. 

We  might,  if  it  were  necessary  or  prudent,  corroborate  this 
statement  respecting  the  desire  to  possess  the  Sacred  volume, 
by  many  facts  of  the  most  interesting  nature.  One  we  may 
state,  as  it  is  notorious  in  the  heart  of  Italy,  where  it  has 
occurred.  It  is  the  recent  publication  of  Martini's  Italian 
version  of  the  Bible,  at  Turin,  where  it  has  been  issued  in 
numbers,  as  we  know,  having  seen  them,  as  well  as  having 
read  advertisements  announcing  it,  posted  up  in  several 
other  towns  in   Piedmont,  in   the   summer  of  1843.     This 


ENCOURAGING    SIGNS.  261 

edition  of  the  Scriptures  was  gotten  up  by  a  bookseller,  under 
the  sanction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Turin,  and  was  altogether 
an  affair  of  private  enterprise  and  speculation.  But  no 
matter ;  it  furnishes  proof  positive  of  a  demand  for  the  Scrip- 
tures, on  the  part  of  the  people,  or  no  bookseller  in  Turin 
would  have  undertaken  it.  It  is  true,  that  it  contains  the 
Apocrypha,  and  sundry  notes,  from  approved  Roman  Catho- 
lic authorities.  Be  it  so  ;  we  would  infinitely  rather  that  the 
Italians  should  have  a  faithful  translation  of  the  Vulgate,  as 
that  of  Archbishop  Martini  unquestionably  is,  than  none  at 
all.     Nor  do  we  see  how  there  can  be  another  opinion. 

4.  Lastly.  We  must  not  fail  to  notice  the  striking  fact, 
that,  in  the  providence  of  God,  there  are  many  Italians  now 
residing  out  of  Italy  for  commercial  and  other  purposes, 
whom  the  Truth  may  be  made  to  reach,  —  in  the  cantons  of 
Ticino  and  the  Grisons,  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  in  Malta,  in 
the  ports  of  the  Levant,  in  Algiers,  in  Corsica,  in  Paris,  Mar- 
seilles, etc.,  etc.  To  these  we  may  add  hundreds  of  men  of 
distinguished  minds,  whom  either  Rome  or  political  despot- 
ism has  compelled  to  go  into  exile,  and  who  are  to  be  found 
in  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  America. 
And  when  they  receive  the  Truth  in  the  love  of  it,  they  will 
not  be  slow  in  endeavoring  to  find  means  to  transmit  it,  some 
how  or  other,  to  their  beloved  and  beautiful  Italy. 

Such  are  some  of  the  signs  in  relation  to  Italy  that  give  us 
encouragement,  and  ought  to  stimulate  to  prayer  and  well- 
directed  effort. 


CHAPTER   III. 

PROTESTANT    CHAPELS    IN  ITALY. 

In  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
there  was  Protestant  worship  in  Venice,  sustained  by  the 
Protestant  Cantons  of  Switzerland,  and  the  Protestant  States 
of  Germany,  for  the  benefit  of  their  legations,  and  of  the 
persons  connected  with  them.  This  service  was  frequented  by 
such  Protestant  residents  as  had  a  desire  to  attend  it.  This 
toleration  of  the  Protestant  worship  for  the  benefit  of  foreign- 
ers, was  granted  by  the  republic  of  Venice,  from  those 
motives  of  commercial  interest  which  characterized  her 
whole  policy.  During  the  reign  of  Napoleon,  and  the  preva- 
lence of  French  power  in  Italy,  a  Protestant  service  in  the 
German  language,  was  estabhshed  in  Venice,  which  has  con- 
tinued to  this  day.  Of  that  service  we  shall  speak  at  length, 
in  another  place. 

After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
old  dynasties  of  Italy,  Protestant  chapels  were  opened  in 
various  cities,  for  the  benefit  of  the  many  Protestants  who 
annually  go  to  that  country  in  quest  of  health  or  pleasure. 
Besides  these,  who  are  only  transient  visitors,  there  is  also  a 
large  class,  consisting  of  traders,  merchants,  bankers,  manu- 
facturers, artists,  and  mechanics,  whose  stay  is  much  more 
prolonged,  and  some  of  whom,  especially  the  last-named, 
remain  all  their  days  there,  intermarry  often  M^th  the 
natives,  and  become  citizens. 

The  foreign  Protestants  in  Italy  are  from  almost  all  the 


PROTESTANT    CHAPELS.  263 

Protestant  countries  in  the  world.  Several  thousands  of 
English,  comprising  many  of  the  highest  ranks,  visit  Rome, 
Florence,  Naples,  and  other  places  in  that  land,  every  winter, 
for  health  or  pleasure.  And  there  are  not  a  few  who  reside 
there  for  years,  from  motives  of  economy  as  well  as  for 
health.  Next  to  the  English,  the  Swiss  are  the  most  numer- 
ous. They  go  to  Italy  less  for  health  or  pleasure  than  for 
business.  There  are  many  Swiss  manufacturers,  merchants, 
bankers,  and  artisans,  residing  in  Italy.  Of  Protestant  Ger- 
mans there  is  a  considerable  number  in  Italy,  including  a 
good  many  young  artists  and  students.  Hundreds  of  Prot- 
estants from  France  and  Hungary  visit  Italy  every  year. 
There  are  also  Italian  Protestants  from  the  Canton  of  the 
Grisons,  who  reside  mostly  at  Leghorn.  In  addition  to  all, 
there  are  Protestants  from  Holland,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  the  United  States,  in  greater  or  less  numbers, 
every  winter. 

What  the  number  of  foreign  Protestants  in  Italy  is,  every 
winter,  it  is  hard  to  estimate ;  it  certainly  amounts  to  many 
thousands.  We  have  heard  it  reckoned  to  be  as  high  as  forty 
or  fifty  thousand.  This  we  thmk  to  be  an  over-estimate.  But 
we  think  it  quite  possible  that  it  may  be  as  much  as  thirty  or 
thirty-five  thousand. 

That  it  is  of  great  moment  to  have  Protestant  places  of 
worship,  and  faithful  Protestant  ministers  in  Italy,  for  the 
benefit  of  these  thousands  of  souls,  who  are  there  greatly 
exposed,  is  too  obvious  to  need  an  attempt  to  prove.  Many 
of  these  persons  go  there  to  die  !  They  leave  their  homes  in 
Protestant  countries,  and  go  to  that  land  of  spiritual  darkness 
and  death,  in  the  hope  of  finding,  beneath  its  mild  skies,  the 
health  which  they  have  lost.  But  they  often  find,  alas,  that 
they  must  end  their  days  there,  far  from  the  sanctuaries 
which  they  had   so  often,  and   with   so   much  dehght,  fre- 


»5' 


264  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

quented  in  tlie  lands  of  their  birth,  and  from  the  spiritual 
guides,  whose  counsels  and  prayers  they  now  so  much  need. 

Others  visit  Italy,  it  may  be  in  health,  attracted  thither 
either  by  business  or  pleasure,  but  without  fixed  principles  of 
religion.  That  such  are  in  danger  of  losing  their  feelings  of 
respect  for  the  Sabbath  and  for  the  ordinances  which  God 
has  appointed  for  their  spiritual  benefit,  is  proved  by  the 
many  shipwrecks  of  religion  and  morals  which  such  persons 
make,  even  during  a  transient  stay  there.  Much  more  do 
they  need  to  have  the  gospel  and  all  its  hallowed  institutions 
meet  them  th^e,  if  they  are  going  to  make  a  protracted  resi- 
dence in  that  country,  for  they  will  be  beset  by  those  who 
will  leave  no  stone  unturned  in  order  to  gather  them  into  the 
fold  of  Rome. 

These  considerations  have  led  many  persons,  in  various 
countries  in  Europe,  and  some  of  them  of  high  rank  and 
station,  to  see  the  desirableness  of  having  Protestant  chapels 
and  chaplains  sustained  in  Italy,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Protestants  of  all  nations  who  visit  that  country.  Among 
these,  influential  English,  Germans,  and  Swiss  have  taken 
the  lead.  And  as  the  Italian  princes,  including  the  pope 
himself,  owe  much  to  Protestant  England  and  Protestant 
Prussia,  —  for  had  it  not  been  for  them,  and  especially  En- 
gland, it  is  probable  that  not  one  of  them  would  be  now  on 
his  throne,  —  they  have  had  substantial  reasons  for  yielding 
to  the  pressing  instance  of  those  two  governments,  that  their 
subjects,  as  well  as  the  Protestants  from  other  countries, 
might  enjoy  their  own  religious  worship  whilst  residing  in 
Italy.  It  is  owing  to  this  urgency,  that  Protestant  chapels 
have  sprung  up  in  various  cities  in  that  land,  in  which  the 
gospel  is  preached ;  in  some,  during  the  autumn,  winter,  and 
spring ;  in  others,  and  they  are  the  greater  number,  during 
the  whole  year. 

Having  made  these  preliminary  remarks,  we  proceed  to 


PROTESTANT  CHAPELS  AT  ROME.  265 

speak  briefly,  in  detail,  of  these  chapels,  relating  such  facts 
and  incidents  respecting  them  as  may  interest  the  reader. 
We  begin  at  the  Eternal  Citj. 

I.     Protestant   Chapels  at  Rome. 

There  are  two  Protestant  chapels  at  Rome,  one  for  the 
benefit  of  the  English,  or  rather  of  all  who  speak  the  English 
language ;  and  the  other  for  those  who  speak  the  German. 

The  English  chapel  stands  without  the  wall  of  the  city,  on 
the  northeastern  side,  and  near  the  Porta  del  Popolo.  ^  It 
is  a  large  room  in  a  private  house,  fitted  up  for  public  wor- 
ship. It  is  a  convenient  place,  and  will  accommodate  some 
five  or  six  hundred  persons.  During  the  winter  season,  or 
rather  from  October  to  June,  it  is  well  filled,  for  the  number 
of  the  English  who  visit  Rome  during  that  portion  of  the 
year  is  great,  —  often  exceeding  three  and  even  four  thou- 
sand. In  addition  to  these,  there  is  usually  a  considerable 
number  of  Americans. 

The  English  service  at  Rome,  like  that  which  exists  else- 
where in  Italy,  is  Episcopal.  The  minister,  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Hutchinson,  is  a  member  of  the  Established  Church  of  En- 
gland. He  is  a  very  worthy  man,  and  much  respected  by 
all  who  know  him.  This  service  was  commenced,  we 
believe,  about  the  year  1825,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Burgess,  who 
now  preaches  in  the  vicinity  of  London.  ^^  He  was  for  a 
number  of  years  the  excellent  chaplain  of  the  English  at 
Rome. 

This  service  is  maintained  by  the  voluntary  contributions 
of  the  English  and  Americans  who  visit  Rome.     In  all  the 

56  The  Gate  of  the  People.  It  is  through  this  gate  that  one  passes  when  setting 
out  in  the  diligence,  or  stage,  for  the  city  of  Florence,  and  other  places  in  the  north 
of  Italy. 

57  Dr.  Burgess  is  author  of  an  excellent  work  on  Rome,  and  takes  a  deep 
interest  in  every  thing  which  concerns  the  progress  of  religion  on  the  Continent. 

23 


2G6  ITALY    SINCE    THE   KEFOEMATIOxV. 

other  cities  in  Italy,  in  which  there  are  English  chapels,  the 
British  government  bears  a  part  of  the  expense  of  maintain- 
ing the  service.  In  many  cases  it  gives  as  much  as  one 
hundred  pounds  sterling  per  annum.  The  rule,  we  believe, 
is  this  :  the  government  will  give  the  half  of  the  sum  which 
is  necessary  to  support  an  English  chaplain,  in  all  places 
where  there  is  a  British  ambassador  or  consul,  provided  the 
English  residents  will  raise  the  other  half,  and  provided  fur- 
ther, that  the  whole  sum  required  does  not  exceed  two  hun- 
dred pounds  sterling  annually.  ^^  This  course  is  in  the 
highest  degree  honorable  to  the  character  of  the  English 
nation.  That  enlightened  government  feels  that  it  is  its  duty 
to  look  well  after  the  best  interests  of  its  subjects  abroad,  as 
well  as  at  home.  It  rightly  Judges,  that  there  are  special 
reasons  for  extending  its  care  and  its  aid  in  the  promotion  of 
the  religious  interests  of  Englishmen  who  are  abroad,  and 
who  are  removed  from  the  restraining  influences  of  home, 
and  exposed  to  temptations  of  every  kind.  But  inasmuch  as 
England  has  no  consul  at  Rome,  and  maintains  no  diplomatic 
relations  whatever  with  the  pope,  nor  can,  for  it  is  forbidden 
by  a  special  law  to  do  so,  the  government  of  that  country  can 
do  nothing  towards  the  support  of  an  English  chapel  in  that 
city.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the  service  for  the  benefit  of 
the  English  in  Rome  is  wholly  dependent  upon  the  voluntary 
contributions  of  those  who  attend  it. 

The  Protestant  service  at  Rome  for  the  benefit  of  the  Ger- 
mans, is  held  in  a  chapel  in  the  residence  of  the  Prussian 
ambassador,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.  This  hill  is  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  modern  city,  as  it  was  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  ancient.     As  the  house  which  the  Prussian  am- 


68  We  wish  that  we  could  say  as  much  for  our  own  government.  Alas,  it  makes 
no  provision  for  the  religious  and  moral  wants  of  even  its  ambassadors  and  resi- 
dent ministers  and  their  families,  no  matter  in  what  countries  they  may  be,  but 
jcaves  them  to  live  like  heathen,  so  far  as  any  thing  which  it  does  is  concerned. 


PROTESTANT    CHAPELS    AT    ROME.  267 

bassador  occupies  belongs  to  bis  government,  tbe  cbapel  is 
permanently  establisbed  on  tbat  spot.  It  is  large  enough  to 
contain  two  or  three  hundred  people,  and  has  been  well  filled 
on  the  occasions  when  we  have  attended  it.  There  are 
always  a  good  many  German  artists  at  Rome,  as  well  as 
many  visitors  during  the  winter,  for  whose  benefit  it  was  ex- 
tremely necessary  to  maintain  a  good  Protestant  chapel. 

This  service  was  commenced  during  the  reign  of  the  late 
excellent  king  of  Prussia,  who  manifested  a  most  laudable 
solicitude  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  in  Italy,  especially 
those  who  were  Prussians.  The  first  chaplain,  we  believe, 
was  the  distinguished  and  eminently  pious  Tholuck,  Professor 
in  the  University  of  Halle,  in  Germany.  He  resided  at 
Pome  about  two  years.  The  present  preacher  is  the  Rev. 
Henry  Thiele,  a  native  of  Brunswick,  a  most  interesting  and 
faithful  young  man.^^ 

In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Prussian  Embassy,  and 
within  a  stone's  cast  of  the  old  Tarpeian  Rock,  stands  the 
Protestant  Hospital,  which  Chevalier  Bunsen,  when  he  was 
the  Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome,  caused  to  be  erected, 
through  the  liberal  aid  of  the  late  king  of  Prussia,  and  be- 
nevolent English,  and  other  foreigners.  This  hospital  cost 
about  twenty-five  thousand  dollars,  and  has  already  proved  to 
be  a  great  blessing.  Before  its  establishment,  there  was 
no  hospital,  into  which  sick  Protestants,  often  young  men, 
without  means,  could,  with  safety  to  their  religious  princi- 
ples, enter,  and  find  that  care  which  they  needed.  There 
were  no  less  than  thirteen  hospitals  in  Rome,  and  all  in  the 
hands  of  Roman  Catholics ;  and  if  a  Protestant  entered  one 
of  them,  he  was  sure  to  be  beset  by  priests,  monks,  and 

59  This  devoted  young  man  possesses  a  most  enlightened  and  catholic,  as  well  as 
amiable  spirit.  As  he  remains  all  the  summer  at  his  post,  he  often  has  to  look  after 
sick  English  and  Americans,  as  well  as  Germans.  Indeed,  it  sometimes  happens, 
that  the  chaplain  of  the  Russian  embassy,  a  member  of  the  Greco-Russian  church, 
engages  him  to  look  after  his  sick  and  dying  countrymen  during  the  same  season. 


268  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

sisters,  who  gave  liim  no  peace.  And  it  often  happened, 
that  poor  young  men  and  others,  when  they  feh.  the  approach 
of  death,  consented  to  receive  the  last  sacraments  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  for  fear  that  they  might  be  neg- 
lected, or  that  their  remains  might  not  receive  a  decent  and 
Christian  burial.  The  opening  of  a  Protestant  hospital, 
admirably  conducted,  for  the  benefit  of  Protestants  from  all 
countries,  has  removed  all  necessity  for  the  occurrence  of 
such  scenes  ;  and  we  are  most  happy  to  say,  that  the  result 
has  been  in  the  highest  degree  satisfactory  to  the  excellent 
and  distinguished  individual  who  founded  it. 

II.     Protestant  Chapels  at  Naples. 

There  are  also  two  Protestant  chapels  at  Naples ;  one  for 
the  English,  and  the  other  for  the  Swiss  and  Germans,  or 
rather  for  all  Protestants  who  speak  German  or  French. 

The  English  chapel  is  in  the  house  of  the  English  consul, 
and  is  supported,  in  part,  by  the  British  government,  and  in 
part  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  English  and  Amer- 
icans who  visit  Naples,  of  whom  the  number,  especially  of  the 
former,  is  every  winter  quite  considerable.  It  is  a  very  pleas- 
ant room,  well  fitted  up,  and  will  hold  as  many  people  as  that 
at  Rome.  It  is  well  attended  during  the  winter,  and  tolerably 
well  in  summer ;  for  there  are  some  English,  who  reside  in  that 
city  the  entire  year.  The  present  chaplain,  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Lushington,  is  a  most  amiable  and  worthy  man,  and  is  much 
esteemed. 

The  chapel  for  the  benefit  of  the  Germans,  Swiss,  and 
French,  is  in  the  house  of  the  Prussian  ambassador,  if  we 
remember  rightly.  It  has  two  chaplains,  one  of  whom,  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Remy,  preaches  in  German,  and  the  other,  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Jaquet,  preaches  in  French.  Two  services  at 
least,  one  in  each  language,  are  held  every  Sabbath,  and 
some  meetings  in  the  course  of  the  week.     Both  of  these 


PROTESTANT  CHAPELS  AT  NAPLES.         269 

ministers  are  young  men,  and  both  are  evangelical  in  their 
faith,  and  zealous  in  the  cause  of  their  Master.  One  is 
suj^ported  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  is  the  chaplain  of  the 
Prussian  embassy  ;  the  other  is  supported  by  the  Swiss  and 
French  Protestants,  —  bankers,  merchants,  and  others, — 
who  reside  in  Naples. 

The  first  Protestant  service  in  the  French  language,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Prussian  embassy,  was  commenced  in  the 
year  1826.  And  -vve  believe,  that  the  eloquent  Adolphus 
Monod,  now  a  distinguished  professor  in  the  Theological 
Faculty  at  Montauban,  in  France,  was  the  first  chaplain. 
He  went  to  that  post  from  Geneva,  where  he  had  just  com- 
pleted his  theological  studies.  He  was  at  that  epoch  a  Ra- 
tionalist. And  it  was  at  Naples,  and  through  the  reading  of 
the  Scriptures,  that  his  eyes  began  to  be  opened  to  see  the 
dreadful  errors  which  he  had  hitherto  held.  But  it  was  at 
Lyons,  whither  he  was  called,  two  years  later,  to  be  one  of 
the  pastors  in  the  National  Protestant  church  of  that  city, 
that  the  good  work  was  carried  on  to  his  happy  emancipation 
from  those  bonds  of  darkness,  in  which  he  had  been  held. 

We  do  not  know  when  we  have  ever  heard  of  a  more  beau- 
tiful circumstance,  than  that  which  was  told  us  at  Naples, 
when  we  were  there  in  the  year  1843,  respecting  the  origin  of 
the  German  and  Swiss  Protestant  chapel,  of  which  we  have 
just  given  some  account.  It  is  this :  —  A  pious  old  German 
colonel,  and  his  sister,  settled  in  Naples,  shortly  after  the 
return  of  peace  to  Europe,  upon  the  downfall  of  Napoleon. 
There  they  passed  long  years  without  having  Protestant 
worsliip  to  attend,  but  constantly  praying  that  God,  in  his 
good  providence,  would  send  them  some  one  to  preach  that 
glorious  gospel  which  they  loved.  Not  being  wiUing,  how- 
ever, to  pass  their  Sabbaths  without  going  to  the  house  of 
God,  or  at  least  what  was  called  such,  they  regularly  went 
for  years,  every  Sabbath,  to  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  where 
23* 


270  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

they  sat  down,  afar  from  the  altar,  (for  they  would  not  have 
any  thing  to  do  with  the  service  which  took  place  at  it,)  but 
still  within  what  they  considered  the  sacred  precincts,  and 
read  their  Bibles,  and  meditated,  and  prayed.  After  spend- 
ing an  hour  or  two  in  this  manner,  they  returned  home. 
Year  after  year  passed  away,  but  at  length  they  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  answer  of  their  prayers,  in  being 
permitted  to  hear  the  gospel  preached  in  that  great  and 
wicked  city,  by  a  Protestant  minister.  What  was  certainly 
a  remarkable  and  beautiful  coincidence  was  the  fact,  that  the 
name  of  these  worthy  persons,  who  were  still  living  in  1843, 
was  Himmelsburger^  and  the  street  in  which  they  lived  was 
called  Strada  di  3fonte  di  Dio  !  ^'^ 

The  Rev.  Messrs.  Remy  and  Jaquet  frequently  preach  to 
the  Swiss  residing  at  places  in  the  neighborhood  of  Naples, 
such  as  Salerno,  Castellamare,  Scaffati,  Angri,  Piedimonte 
d'Alife,  etc.  Indeed,  there  is  need  of  a  third  chaplain  for 
this  field. 

III.     Protestant  Chapels  at  Messina, 

There  are  two  Protestant  chapels  at  Messina,  in  Sicily, 
one  for  the  English,  and  the  other  for  the  Swiss,  French,  and 
Germans, —  or  rather  for  all  who  understand  French.  The 
present  chaplain  of  the  English  is  the  Rev.  Mr.  Miiller,  who 
was  educated  at  Basle,  and  employed  as  a  missionary  by  the 
Basle  Missionary  Society  for  several  years  in  the  Russian 
possessions  south  of  the  Caucasus.  He  was  afterwards  chap- 
lain to  the  late  unfortunate  expedition  sent  from  England  to 
ascend  and  explore  the  Niger.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Grisinger,  of 
Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  preaches  in  the  French  chapel,  a  man 
of  good  spirit,  and  much  esteemed.   It  is  but  a  few  years  since 


60  Which  is  German,  and  means  :   Citizens  of  Heaven, 

61  AVhich  is  Italian,  and  signifies ;  Street  of  the  Mount  of  God. 


CHAPELS    AT    PALERMO    AND    LEGHOPvN.  271 

this  chapel  was  opened,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  sum 
requisite  to  support  it,  during  the  first  year  or  two,  was  sent 
by  the  Foreign  Evangelical  Society  of  the  United  States. 

IV.  Protestant  Chapel  at  Palermo. 

An  English  service  has  from  time  to  time  been  maintained 
at  Palermo,  which  is  the  political  capital  of  Sicily.  But  the 
number  of  English  there  bears  no  comparison  with  that  of 
those  who  frequent  Naples.  There  are,  however,  enough  to 
render  it  desirable,  and  even  important,  to  have  an  English 
minister  of  the  gospel  there.  Palermo  has  a  delicious 
climate,  and  is  frequented  by  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
invalids  every  winter.  There  are  also  some  English  mer- 
chants, who  reside  there  the  whole  year ;  and  the  port  is 
visited  by  some  English  and  American  ships,  which  are  en- 
gaged in  the  Italian  trade. 

V.  Protestant  Chapels  at  Leghorn. 

Leghorn,  being  a  free  port,  not  only  Protestants,  but  all 
other  denominations  of  Christians,  whom  Rome  deems  and 
declares  '  heretical,'  have  a  certain,  and  even  a  large  amount 
of  religious  liberty  there.  Accordingly,  we  find  not  only 
Protestant  worship  for  the  benefit  of  English,  Germans, 
French,  and  Swiss,  but  also  —  what  we  find  no  where  else  in 
all  Italy  —  for  the  Protestant  Italians  from  the  cantons  of 
the  Grisons  and  Ticino,  and  from  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
province  of  the  Valteline.  The  Ai'menians  and  Greeks 
have  also  chapels  in  that  city,  which  has  an  extensive  com- 
merce with  the  Levant,  as  well  as  all  other  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean.^^ 


62  The  Jews,  of  whom  there  are  not  less  than  ten  thousand  in  Leghorn,  have 
several  schools,  two  of  which  are  Infant  schools,  and  a  synagogue,  which  Is 
probably  the  finest  in  the  world.     The  Turks  also  have  a  mosque  in  that  city. 


I 


272  ITALY    SINCE    THE   KEFORMATION. 

The  English  chapel  is  spacious  and  handsome,  and  the 
burjing-ground  attached  to  it  is  one  of  the  finest  cemeteries 
which  one  meets  with  in  Italy .^  A  chaplain  is  maintained 
by  the  English  Factory,  or  Mercantile  Agency  in  that  city, 
aided  by  the  British  Government.  As  the  English  residents 
at  Leghorn  are  numerous,  and  the  place  is  visited  every 
winter  by  many  invalids  and  others  from  the  British  realm, 
the  congregation  which  assembles  in  this  chapel  is  quite 
large  during  several  months,  and  highly  respectable. 

When  we  were  in  that  city  in  the  year  1843,  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Liider,  a  very  worthy  Protestant  mmister,  was  preach- 
ing there  in  German,  French,  and  Italian,  for  the  benefit  of 
those  of  the  Reformed  Faith,  from  Germany,  France,  and 
Switzerland,  and  the  cantons  of  Ticino  and  the  Grisons. 

Leghorn,  being  a  free  port,  and  great  commercial  depot,  it 
is  obvious  that  it  is  a  point  of  vast  importance.  There  is  far 
more  toleration  there  than  in  any  other  city  in  Italy,  and 
there  is  a  greater  sphere  for  the  exertion  of  a  Protestant  in- 
fluence than  in  any  other  part  of  that  country. 

YI.     Protestant  Chapels  at  Florence. 

There  is  a  large  English  chapel  at  Florence,  which  is  well 
sustained  by  the  English  Government,  and  the  English  resi- 
dents and  visitors,  who  are  numerous.  Florence  is  one  of 
the  points,  at  which  great  numbers  of  English  pass  the  win- 
ter. It  is  a  beautiful  city,  and  finely  situated  on  the  river 
Arno,  in  one  of  the  sweetest  valleys  in  the  world,  and  at  the 
distance  of  a  few  miles  from  the  Apennines.  As  it  possesses 
so  many  attractions,  it  is  frequented  by  strangers  from  all 
parts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  by  a  goodly  number  of  Ameri- 
cans, every  winter.     It  is,  therefore,  one  of  those  points  at 


63  In  this  cemetery  lie  the  remains  of  SmoUet,  and  several  other  distinguished 
Englishmen. 


i 


PROTESTANT    CHURCH    AT    VENICE.  273 

which  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  able  and  faithful  Protest- 
ant ministers  to  look  well  after  those  of  their  faith,  and  in- 
struct them  in  the  truth,  and  guard  them  well  from  the 
dangers  which  surround  them. 

A  service,  in  French,  for  the  Swiss  and  French  Protest- 
ants in  Florence,  has  been  maintained  for  many  years  by  the 
exertions  of  liberal  Swiss  and  French,  who  reside  there. 
This  service  has  been  held,  and  is  still  held,  we  believe,  in 
the  English  chapel,  and  is  attended  by  a  goodly  number  of 
people. 

VII.     Protestant  Church  at  Venice. 

We  have  stated,  that  the  Protestant  worship  was  main- 
tained at  Venice  during  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  by  the  legations  from  the  Protestant 
Cantons  of  Switzerland,  and  the  Protestant  States  of  Ger- 
many. But  when  the  republic  of  Venice  came  to  an  end,  in 
the  year  1797,  those  legations  were  withdrawn,  and  of  course 
the  services  ceased. 

But,  whilst  the  French  had  possession  of  that  city,  from 
1801  to  181 4,  liberty  was  granted  to  the  Hungarian  Prot- 
estants residing  there  to  open  a  church  for  their  own  ben- 
efit. This  they  did,  and  supported  public  worship  by  their 
contributions.  As  they  were  several  hundred  in  number, 
and,  as  many  of  them  were  rich  merchants  and  bankers, 
they  had  no  difficulty  in  buying  or  erecting  a  suitable  build- 
ing, and  sustaining  all  the  necessary  expenses.^ 

Upon  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  and  consequently  of  the 
French  dominion  in  Italy,  Venice  fell  into  the  possession  of 
Austria.  As  soon  as  the  congress  of  Vienna  had  decided 
that  this  ancient  republic  should  form  a  part  of  the  Austrian 


64  The  Protestant  Church  in  Venice  stands  at  a  short  distance  from  the  Grand 
Canal,  and  at  the  distance  of  one  or  two  squares  west  of  the  Rialto. 


274  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

empire,  the  pope's  nuncio,  who  was  at  Vienna,  during  the  meet- 
ing of  the  congress,  went  to  the  emperor  of  Austria  and 
demanded,  in  the  name  of  his  master,  that  that  Protestant 
chapel  should  be  closed.  When  the  king  of  Prussia,  the 
late  excellent  Frederick  William  III.,  who  was  a  member  of 
that  congress,  heard  of  this,  he  went  to  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria, and  told  him  that  he  thought  that  the  Protestants  of 
Venice  ought  to  be  allowed  to  have  their  own  worship,  and 
pledged  his  word  that  it  should  cost  the  Austrian  government 
nothing  to  maintain  it.  At  his  instance,  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment consented,  and  this  Protestant  church  has  ever  since 
been  continued.  When  we  were  first  in  Italy,  in  the  year 
1837,  we  attended  that  church,  and  were  delighted  to  see 
two  or  three  hundred  persons  present,  almost  all  of  them 
Hungarians,  and  among  them  at  least  fifty  officers  and  sol- 
diers of  the  Austrian  force  stationed  in  that  city.  And  the 
young  and  excellent  Mr.  Witchen,  himself  the  son  of  a 
Protestant  pastor  of  Hungary,  whom  we  heard  preach,  in 
German,  told  us,  that  every  year  the  good  old  king  of 
Prussia  wrote  to  him  to  know  whether  he  was  adequately 
supported,  and  to  say  to  him,  that  if  he  needed  any  thing,  he 
must  inform  him  of  it,  and  his  wants  should  be  supplied. 
*  But,'  said  Mr.  W.,  '  hitherto  I  have  been  able  to  assure  his 
majesty,  that  I  have  had  need  of  nothing,  my  congregation 
being  able  and  willing  to  support  me.' 

VIII.     Protestant  Chapels  at  Genoa. 

There  are  Protestant  services  in  both  the  English  and 
French  languages  at  Genoa,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Enghsh, 
Swiss,  and  French  residents  in  that  city ;  w^ho,  although  not 
numerous,  are  yet  enough  so  to  justify  the  expense  of  sus- 
taining the  gospel  there  in  their  behalf.  We  cannot  say  that 
these  services,  as  carried  on  in  the  year  1843,  were  as  effi- 
cient as  they  might  be.  We  are  inclined  to  think,  that  they 
were  the  least  so  of  all  the  Protestant  services  in  Italy. 


PROTESTANT    SERVICES    AT    MILAN.  275 


IX.  Protestant  Chapel  in  Bergamo. 
There  is  a  considerable  number  of  Protestants  at  Berga- 
mo, wliicb  is  a  pleasant  city  in  the  Lombardo- Venetian  king- 
dom. They  are  chiefly  Germans,  and  some  of  them  are 
wealthy  bankers,  who  have  lent  a  good  deal  of  money,  from 
time  to  time,  to  the  Austrian  government,  and  in  return 
have  been  permitted  to  enjoy  their  own  religious  worship, 
which  they  sustain  by  their  contributions.  A  few  years  ago, 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Stahl,  a  man  of  good  repute,  was  the  Protestant 
chaplain  at  that  place.  Whether  he  be  there  now  or  not,  we 
are  not  informed. 

X.     Protestant  Services  at  Milan. 

When  we  visited  Italy  for  the  first  time,  in  the  year  1837, 
there  was  no  Protestant  service  at  Milan,  although  it  was 
afhrmed  that  no  less  than  four  thousand  Protestants,  chiefly 
Swiss,  resided  there.  It  was  otherwise  when  we  last  visited 
that  country,  in  the  year  1843.  There  were  then  two  Prot- 
estant ministers  in  that  city,  one  a  Hungarian,  and  the  other 
a  Swiss.  The  former  preached  in  German,  and  the  latter 
in  French. 

The  history  of  the  establishment  of  Protestant  worship  in 
Milan  is  very  interesting,  and  we  state  it  with  the  more 
pleasure,  inasmuch  as  it  reflects  the  highest  credit  on  the 
Austrian  government. 

About  the  year  1840  or  '41,  a  Hungarian  Protestant 
soldier  in  the  Austrian  army  stationed  in  the  north  part  of 
Italy,  committed  some  crime,  for  which  he  was  sentenced  by 
a  court-martial  to  die.  As  there  was  no  Protestant  minister 
in  Milan,  the  commanding  officer,  who  happened  to  be  a 
Hungarian  and  a  Protestant,  wrote  to  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment to  say,  that  a  Protestant  soldier  there  had  been  con- 
demned to  die,  but  that  there  was  no  minister  of  his  religion 


276  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

there  to  help  him  him  prepare  for  his  dreadful  end.  The 
Austrian  government  learning  this  fact,  caused  a  Protestant 
minister  to  come  from  Hungary,  and  sent  him  several  hun- 
dreds of  miles  to  Milan,  to  help  this  poor  soldier  prepare  for 
death. 

Encouraged  by  this  conduct  of  the  Austrian  government, 
the  same  officer  wrote  again,  to  say  that  it  was  no  wonder 
that  the  Protestant  soldiers  in  the  Austrian  army  in  Italy 
committed  crimes,  for  they  had  no  one  to  give  them  religious 
instruction.  Whereupon  the  Austrian  government  sent  a 
Hungarian  Protestant  minister  to  act  as  chaplain  to  the 
Protestant  soldiers  and  officers  of  the  Austrian  army  in  that 
country. 

The  Protestants  at  Milan,  seeing  this,  addressed  a  request 
to  the  Austrian  government  to  be  allowed  to  have  a  Protest- 
ant chapel  in  that  city  for  their  spiritual  benefit.  The  gov- 
ernment consented;  and  now  there  are  two  Protestant 
preachers  there,  one  preaching  to  the  soldiers,  the  other  to 
the  Protestants  residing  in  that  city. 

XI.     Protestant  Chapel  at  Turin, 

There  is  no  English  chapel  at  Turin,  at  present ;  and  in 
fact,  with  the  exception  of  the  persons  attached  to  the  British 
legation,  there  are  few  if  any  English,  residing  in  that  city. 
Nor  is  it  a  place  at  which  English  travellers  make  much 
stay.  But  there  is  a  Protestant  service  under  the  Prussian 
auspices,  and  in  reality  the  chapel  itself  forms  a  part  of  the 
hotel,  or  spacious  residence  of  the  ambassador  of  that  nation. 
No  government  has  shown  a  more  laudable  interest  in  the 
religious  and  moral  welfare  of  its  legations,  or  a  greater  de- 
sire to  advance  the  interests  of  Protestantism  in  general,  than 
that  of  Prussia. 

The  late  Prussian  ambassador  at  Turin,  Count  Waldbourg- 
Truchsess,  was  an  excellent  man,  and  lived  a  hfe  of  exem- 


PROTESTANT    CHAPEL    AT    TURIN.  277 

plary  goodness.  It  was  no  trifling  excuse  whicli  could 
detain  bim  from  the  services  of  the  Protestant  chapel,  of 
which  he  was  so  worthy  a  member. 

It  was  our  privilege  to  attend  public  worship  in  this- 
chapel,  repeatedly,  during  both  our  visits  to  Turin,  in  the 
years  1837  and  1843.  The  congregation  consists  of  three  or 
four  hundred  people,  mostly  Protestants  from  the  valleys  of 
Piedmont,  who  bear  the  name  of  Waldenses.  It  is  said,  that 
as  many  as  five  hundred  of  these  people  reside  in  Turin,  as 
servants  in  families,  mechanics,  shopkeepers,  etc.  The 
preacher  is  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bert,  a  son  of  the  late  moderator  of 
the  Waldensian  Synod,  of  which  body  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak  in  another  part  of  this  work.  We  are  happy  to  say, 
that  Mr.  Bert  is  not  only  a  talented  and  eloquent  young  man, 
but  also  a  faithful  preacher  of  the  gospel.  The  post  which 
he  occupies  is  one  of  vast  importance.  For  seven  years  and 
more,  he  has  been  enabled,  through  God's  grace  and  blessing, 
to  fill  it  not  only  with  fidelity,  but  also  with  singular  prudence 
and  wisdom. 

We  may  add,  that  individuals  belonging  to  almost  all  the 
Protestant  embassies  at  the  Sardinian  court,  attend  this 
chapel,  it  being  in  fact  the  only  one  in  Turin,  where  they  can 
hear  the  Faith  which  they  profess.  It  is  quite  common, 
therefore,  to  see  Dutch,  English,  Swedes,  Americans,  as  well 
as  Germans,  present  at  its  services. 

The  events  of  the  last  summer  have  demonstrated  what 
need  there  is  of  vigilance,  on  the  part  of  Protestants  in 
Italy,  in  order  to  guard  against  the  wiles  of  their  adversaries^ 
We  allude  to  the  outrageous  and  successful  attempt  to  carry 
off  and  place  in  a  convent,  the  daughter  of  the  late  Dutch 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  Turin.  Up  to  the  latest  dates  of 
intelligence  from  that  city,  all  eiforts  to  recover  her  had  been 
unsuccessful.  If  there  were  another  William  the  Third  on 
24 


278  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

the  throne  of  Holland,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying,  that 
this  young  lady  would  soon  be  found.  But,  alas,  these  are 
not  the  days  of  a  Cromwell,  nor  of  a  Prince  of  Orange  such 
as  William  III.  was.  The  present  king  of  Holland,  we  are 
sorry  to  say,  appears  to  care  little  for  the  interests  of  Prot- 
estantism ;  and  yet,  he  is  descended  from  ancestors  who  did 
glorious  things  for  the  Protestant  cause,  and  rules  over  a 
country,  to  whose  independence  the  Protestant  Religion  gave 
existence. 

XII.     Protestant  Chapel  at  Nice. 

At  this  moment,  we  believe,  there  is  no  French  Prot- 
estant chapel  at  Nice,  although  there  was  one,  almost  with- 
out interruption,  for  a  number  of  years.  But  there  is  an 
English  service,  for  the  benefit  of  the  English,  who  frequent 
that  little  city  in  great  numbers  every  winter,  for  health,  or 
are  attracted  thither  by  its  delightful  climate. 

We  know  not  who  is  the.  English  chaplain  at  Nice,  at 
present.  The  Rev.  John  Hartley  filled  that  post  for  several 
years,  and  was  greatly  blest  in  his  labors.  But  that  eminent 
servant  of  Christ  was  called  from  his  work  in  the  summer  of 
1843.  He  died,  lamented  by  all  who  knew  him.  Besides 
being  an  excellent  preacher,  he  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  books  and  tracts,  in  English  and  French,  which  will  long, 
we  doubt  not,  diffuse  the  blessed  truth  which  he  loved  to 
proclaim.  Mr.  Hartley,  we  may  add,  was  for  several  years 
a  missionary  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  but  was  compelled 
to  leave  that  field  by  the  feeble  health  of  his  wife.*^^ 


65  Some  ten  or  twelve  years  ago,  Mr.  H.  published  a  very  interesting  work  on 
the  present  state  of  the  Seven  Churches  in  Asia  Minor,  addressed  by  our  Lord  in 
the  second  and  third  chapters  of  the  Apocalypse. 


PROTESTANT  CHAPLAINS.  279 

XIII.      Occasional  Protestant  Services. 

There  are  several  other  places  in  Italy  where  Prot- 
estant worship  is  occasionally  maintained  by  English  resi- 
dents or  visitors.  Among  these  we  may  mention  Lucca 
and  Sienna,  which  are  not  far  apart ;  and  also  Sorrento,  and 
Castellamare.  At  some  seasons  there  is  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  English  in  these  places,  and  a  service  is  maintained  at 
their  expense,  some  minister  from  England,  who  is  on  a  visit 
to  Italy,  consenting  to  act  as  their  chaplain.  Our  country- 
man, the  Rev.  Dr.  Jarvis,  officiated  in  this  capacity  one 
winter,  if  not  more,  at  Sienna,  to  the  acceptance  of  the 
English^  and  Americans  who  were  passing  the  season  there. 

XIV.     Protestant   Chaplains  in  the  Army  of  Naples. 

The  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies  has  some  five  or  six  thousand 
Swiss  soldiers  in  his  army,  of  whom  nearly  two  thousand  are 
Protestants.  It  is  a  fact,  highly  honorable  to  that  monarch, 
whatever  may  be  said  against  him  in  other  respects,  that  he 
has  had  the  justice  to  graiit  the  request  of  those  Protestant 
soldiers  and  their  officers,  that  they  might  have  religious 
teachers  of  their  own  Faith.  For  several  years,  he  has  sup- 
ported two  Swiss  chaplains  of  the  Protestant  Church,*  who 
have  preached  the  gospel  to  the  Protestant  soldiers  of  the 
Swiss  regiments.  In  doing  so  he  has,  however,  acted  wisely 
in  reference  to  his  own  interests.  It  is  of  great  importance 
that  these  foreign  troops  should  be  sober,  moral  men.  To 
secure  this,  he  could  adopt  no  measure  so  suitable  as  the 
employment  of  competent  religious  teachers.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Swiss  soldiers,  whilst  in  Italy,  are  greatly 
exposed  to  the  vice  of  drunkenness,  owing  to  the  use  of  the 
strong  fiery  wines  of  that  country.  This  is  especially  true  of 
those  who  go  into  the  southern  parts  of  it. 

Very  different  has  been  the  conduct  of  his  Holiness.     He, 


280  ITALY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

too,  has  mercenary  troops  in  his  army.  His  Swiss  soldiers 
are  about  six  thousand,  or  six  thousand  five  hundred  in  num- 
ber. And  among  them  are  something  like  two  thousand 
Protestants.  And  they,  too,  have  requested  that  they  might 
have  religious  teachers  of  their  Faith.  But  the  Holy  Father 
of  the  Church  has  never  listened  to  their  petition.  The  con- 
sequence is,  that  these  two  thousand  nominally  Protestant 
troops  are  greatly  in  danger  of  returning  to  their  native  land, 
when  their  term  of  service  is  expired,  corrupt  in  morals,  and 
infidel  in  their  sentiments  on  the  subject  of  religion.  With 
very  few  exceptions,  they  are  not  truly  religious  men.  And 
they  see  enough,  as  their  position  and  duties  lead  them  to 
know  the  character  of  the  people  and  the  conduct  of  the 
priests  and  monks  very  thoroughly,  to  make  them,  one  would 
suppose,  despise  every  thing  in  the  shape  of  religion.  That 
this  is  often  the  case,  is  certain.  That  it  is  not  so  univer- 
sally, is  owing  to  the  lingering  respect  and  love  which  they 
may  entertain  for  the  Faith  in  which  they  were  born  and 
were  brought  up. 

XV.     Summary. 

From  the  preceding  notices,  the  reader  will  gather,  that 
there  are  no  less  than  eight  English  and  ten  Swiss  and  Ger- 
man chapels  in  Italy  for  the  benefit  of  the  foreign  Protestants 
who  visit  that  country,  or  reside  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time 
in  it.  And  if  we  include  all  the  places  in  which  there  is 
occasionally  Protestant  preaching,  we  should  increase  the 
number  to  twenty -five  or  twenty-six. 

The  number  of  Protestant  chaplains  in  Italy,  including  one 
who  is  laboring  among  the  Austrian  troops,  and  two  among 
the  Neapolitan,  is  not  less  than  twenty-one  or  twenty-two. 
This  is  the  number  of  those  who  are  found  there  every  year ; 
and  some  years  there  are  several  more.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  several  of  the  Swiss  and  German  ministers  who  are 


SUMMARY.  281 

in  Italy,  had  obscure,  and  some  of  them  very  erroneous, 
views  of  the  gospel  when  they  went  thither ;  but  they  have 
been  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Truth,  and  made  to  feel 
its  power,  through  God's  blessing  upon  the  reading  of  the  Sa- 
cred Scriptures.  Were  it  proper,  we  could  name  some  very 
interesting  cases  of  conversion,  which  have  occurred  among 
these  ministers,  who  at  first  and  for  many  years,  preached 
what  was  '  another  gospel.' 

As  to  the  English  chaplains  in  Italy,  whilst  it  is  to  be 
lamented  that  there  are  some  among  them  who  do  not  seem 
to  comprehend  the  gospel,  nor  the  true  work  of  the  ministry, 
there  are  some  of  a  very  different  character.  And  the  read- 
ing of  the  liturgy,  where  the  minister  does  not  comprehend 
his  true  mission  and  office,  it  is  believed,  exerts  a  great  influ- 
ence to  keep  alive  in  the  hearts  of  those  entering  with 
interest  into  the  service,  the  knowledge  of  God  and  divine 
things. 

In  the  account  which  we  have  given  of  the  Protestant 
chapels  in  Italy,  we  have  not  included  the  Waldenses,  who 
live  in  their  own  valleys  in  Piedmont.  It  is  our  intention 
now  to  speak  of  them,  and  their  state  and  prospects.  This 
we  shall  do  in  the  third  and  last  part  of  our  work. 

We  would  not  pass  from  the  consideration  of  this  subject, 
without  saying,  that,  in  whatever  light  we  regard  it,  we  can- 
not fail  to  see  its  vast  importance.  And  it  is  certainly  a  fact 
which  calls  for  devout  gratitude  to  God,  that  he  has  inchned 
the  hearts  of  the  rulers  of  Italy  to  permit  the  opening  of  the 
Protestant  chapels,  which  we  have  enumerated  in  this  chap- 
ter. This  liberal  and  wise  measure  is  highly  honorable  to 
them,  and  beneficial  to  their  subjects. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  good 
results  which  will  flow  from  this  measure  to  the  foreign  Prot- 
estants in  Italy.     It  will  be  a  great  means  of  guarding  them 
from  the  dangers  which  surround  them.     It  is  well  known 
24* 


282  ITALY    SINCE    THE   KEFOKMATION. 

that  in  Rome  there  are  apostate  Protestants  employed  to 
ingratiate  themselves,  by  offers  of  kindness,  with  their  fellow- 
countrymen  who  visit  that  city,  and  lead  them  to  embrace 
the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  One  of  the 
most  active  of  these  Jesuit  panders,  is  a  young  man  from 
New  York. 

Still  more ;  it  is  of  vast  importance  that  the  Protestants 
who  visit  Italy  should  be  such  that  their  conversation  and 
example  will  do  good  to  the  Italians.  They  have  it  in  their 
power  to  advance  the  interests  of  Truth,  in  a  thousand  ways, 
whilst  in  that  country. 

We  have  now  come  to  the  conclusion  of  the  Second  Part 
of  our  work,  which  we  have  entitled :  Italy  since  the  Reforma- 
tion. We  have  noticed  the  various  political  changes  which 
that  country  has  undergone  within  the  last  three  centuries, 
its  gradual  advancement  in  civilization,  and  the  measures 
which  were  adopted  by  Rome  to  extirpate  the  Reformation, 
and  to  prevent  its  return.  We  have  reviewed  the  favorable 
indications  which  lead  to  the  belief  that  a  brighter  day,  for 
the  cause  of  Truth  in  that  country,  is  probably  not  very  far 
distant.  And  we  have  given  an  account  of  the  Protestant 
chapels  which  have  sprung  up  there  within  the  last  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years. 

We  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  Waldenses,  who  live  in 
the  valleys  in  Piedmont,  and  are  therefore  in  the  limits  of 
Italy;  and  who  may  one  day  be,  as  they  were  styled  in 
former  times,  the  Lumen  totius  Italice.  ^ 

66  The  Light  of  allltaly. 


PART   III 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  ITALY. 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  ITALY:  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


PART    III. 


THE     HISTORY,    PRESENT    STATE,    AND     PROSPECTS     OF     THE 
WALDENSES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ORIGIN   AND   ANTIQUITY   OF   THE   WALDENSES. 

We  have  repeatedly  spoken  of  the  Waldcnses  in  the 
former  portions  of  this  work ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  take  a 
more  complete  notice  of  them.  As  they  live  on  the  verge 
of  Italy,  occupy  a  position  greatly  insulated  from  the  rest  of 
that  country,  and  have  institutions,  as  well  as  a  history, 
entu-ely  peculiar  to  themselves,  it  is  proper  that  they  should 
be  spoken  of  in  a  distinct  portion  of  this  volume.  Hedged 
up  though  they  be,  in  their  mountain-home,  on  the  confines 
of  France  and  Savoy,  they  are  nevertheless  Italians.  And 
small  as  their  country  is,  and  few  as  they  are  in  number,  it 
may  be  that  they  are  destined  to  exert  a  great  moral  and 
religious  influence  upon  the  three  countries  which  surround 
them,  as  did  their  ancestors,  who,  through  ages  of  dark- 
ness, shone  as  '  lights  in  the  world,'  and  '  held  forth  the 
Word  of  life.' 


286 


THE    WALDENSES. 


I.     Their  name,  whence  derived. 

There  has  been  no  little  dispute  respecting  the  name  and 
the  origin  of  these  people.  As  to  the  former,  it  is  now  con- 
ceded, that  the  word  Wcddenses  is  not  the  proper  one  by 
which  to  designate  them ;  but  such  is  its  universal  applica- 
tion, at  least  by  those  who  speak  the  English  language,  that 
we  prefer  to  use  it,  rather  than  employ  either  Vallenses,  as 
Mr.  Faber  does,  in  his  excellent  work  relating  to  them,  ^  or 
Vaudois,  as  Dr.  Henderson  calls  them,  in  his  interesting 
volume.  ^  Both  of  these  names,  one  of  Latin,  and  the  other 
of  Provencal  origin,  give,  it  is  true,  the  right  idea  of  them, 
namely,  as  being  Me7i  of  the  Valleys.  ^  But  we  shall  adhere 
to  that  by  which  they  have  so  long  been  called  in  England 
and  in  this  country,  and  which  has  become  inveterate,  rather 
than  attempt  to  substitute  another,  though  undoubtedly  more 


1  T/ie  Ancient  Vallenses  and  Albigenses.    By  the  Rev.  G.  S.  Faber.    London,  1838. 

2  The  Vaudois :  comprising  Observations  made  during  a  Tour  of  the  Valleys  of  Pied- 
mont in  the  Summ,er  of  1S44 ;  together  with  Rem.arks,  introductory  and  interspersed^ 
respecting  the  Origin,  History,  and  present  Condition  of  that  interesting  People.  By  E. 
Henderson,  D.  D. 

8  Ebrardus  de  Bethune,  in  -writing  against  these  people,  says:  '  Some  of  them 
call  themselves  Vallenses,  because  they  dwell  in  the  Valley  of  Tears,' —  Quidam  au- 
tem  qui  Vallenses  se  appellant,  eo  quod  in  Valle  lachrymarum  maneant —  thus  giving  a 
metaphorical  instead  of  a  literal  signification  to  the  term.  In  like  manner,  Ber- 
nardus  of  Fontecaude,  says  of  them  :  '  They  are  called  Valdenses,  namely,  from  a 
deep  t'aZZet/,  because  of  the  deep  and  dark  errors  in  which  they  are  involved,'  — 
dicti  sunt  Valdenses,  nimirwn  a  valle  densa,  eo  qudd  profundis  et  densis  errorum 
tenebris  involvantur. 

The  terms  Vaudois,  in  French,  Vallenses,  in  Latin,  Valdesi  or  Vallesi,  in  Italian, 
all  signify  '  Men  of  the  Valleys.'  The  name  '  Waldenses,'  in  English,  now  has  no 
other  meaning  than  as  designating  the  people  who  live  in  certain  valleys  in  Pied- 
mont, whatever  may  have  been  its  origin.  There  is  an  inconvenience,  to  say  the 
least  of  it,  in  employing  the  term  Vaudois  to  indicate  these  people,  for  that  word 
also  designates  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  Switzerland,  with  whom 
the  Waldenses  must  not  be  confounded.  And  yet  they  are  often  confounded  with 
them.  Even  Sharon  Turner  has  committed  this  mistake,  and  speaks  of  the  Walden- 
ses, Italians  as  they  are,  as  if  they  were  inhabitants  of  Switzerland,  of  the  '  Pays 
de  Vaud.'    Hist,  of  England  during  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  v.  book  vii.  ch.  3,  p.  134. 


THEIR    ORIGIN.  287 

proper.  It  would  seem  that  the  early  English  writers  who 
treated  of  them,  called  them  Waldenses,  under  the  impression 
that  thej  were  descended  from  the  followers  of  Peter  Waldo, 
of  Lyons,  a  Reformer  of  the  twelfth  century,  of  whom  we 
shall  speak  presently,  and  not  in  reference  to  the  nature  of 
the  country  which  they  inhabited.  However  this  may  be, 
the  word  now  designates  these  people  with  sufficient  definite- 
ness,  and  has  no  reference  to  the  sect  of  the  Lyonese  Re- 
former, in  the  minds  of  those  who  use  it. 

II.      Origin  of  the    Waldenses. 

But  the  question  of  their  origin  is  far  more  important  than 
that  of  their  name.  It  is  well  known  that,  centuries  before 
the  Reformation  by  Luther,  Zuingle,  and  Calvin,  there  was  a 
considerable  body  of  Christians  inhabiting  the  valleys  which 
lie  in  the  Alps,  about  midway  between  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  the  Lake  Leman,  who  did  not  symbolize  with  Rome. 
The  portion  of  the  great  Alpine  range  which  they  inhabit, 
is  called  the  Cottian  Alps,  from  the  name  of  one  Cottius,  a 
native  prince,  who  contended  with  the  Romans,  and  success- 
fully, for  the  possession  of  this  portion  of  his  dominions.  It 
would  seem  that  there  were,  in  fact,  very  many  of  them,  and 
that  they  held  intimate  communion,  on  the  one  hand,  with 
evangelical  Christians  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  and  who  were 
for  centuries  numerous  in  the  diocesses  of  Milan  and  Turin ; 
and  on  the  other,  with  those  in  Dauphiny,  Provence,  and 
Languedoc,  in  the  southeastern  and  southern  parts  of 
France. 

Through  the  region  which  they  inhabited,  lay  the  great 
road  by  which  the  Romans  passed  from  Cisalpine  to  Trans- 
alpine Gaul.  And  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  that  the  early 
Christian  missionaries  who  carried  the  Truth  into  the  latter, 
passed  through  this  country,  and  preached  the  blessed  gospel 
to  its  inhabitants.     It  is  even  possible  that  the  voice  of  Paul 


288  THE    WALDENSES. 

was  heard  In  those  deep  valleys ;  for  if  he  ever  made  that 
journey  into  Spain,  which  he  tells  the  brethren  at  Rome,  in 
his  epistle  to  the  church  of  that  city,  that  he  purposed  to 
make,  he  must  have  passed,  it  is  believed,  by  that  same  way. 
However  that  may  have  been,  it  is  certain  that  there  was  a 
great  body  of  Christians  in  the  north  of  Italy,  even  down  till 
the  eleventh  century,  who  nobly  maintained  the  Truth,  and 
did  not  bow  their  necks  to  Rome.  Nor  is  it  unreasonable  to 
suppose,  that  if  the  Truth  spread  on  the  plains  below,  it  also, 
and  at  the  same  time,  spread  into  the  adjacent  valleys.  And 
if  it  maintained  itself  so  long  amidst  the  richer  and  more 
luxurious  population  of  the  plain,  notwithstanding  all  the 
invasions  wliich  it  suffered  from  the  northern  hordes,  who 
overran  Italy,  it  is  quite  credible  that  it  should  remain  flour- 
ishing amid  the  poverty  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountain- 
valleys,  remote  from  the  scenes  of  desolation  and  blood  which 
war  creates. 

Nor  are  we  left  to  conjecture  alone,  whose  plausibility, 
however  great,  could  not,  it  is  admitted,  satisfy  all  our  de- 
sii'es  on  this  interesting  subject.  History  comes  in  to  confirm 
these  suppositions,  by  a  multitude  of  facts,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly stated,  as  well  as  by  many  incidental  allusions  which 
have  a  most  important  bearing  on  this  question.  We  will 
take  notice  of  as  many  as  the  limited  space  which  we  can 
give  to  this  topic  will  allow. 

III.      Opinions  of  the   Waldenses  themselves  respecting  their 
Origin. 

Let  it  be  observed,  then,  that  the  Waldenses  maintain, 
and  have  done  so  from  the  date  of  their  earliest  existing 
histories,  that  their  ancestors  inhabited  the  country  which 
they  now  occupy,  and  held  the  Faith  which  they  hold,  since 
the  days  of  the  apostles.  They  are  of  opinion,  that  the  gospel 
was  preached  to  their  forefathers  in  those  valleys  by  Chris- 


THEIR    ORIGIN.  289 

tian  missionaries  from  Rome,  or  other  cities  in  Italy  where  it 
had  gained  extensive  ground,  or  that  it  was  introduced  by 
those  who  fled  from  the  plain  country;  perhaps  some  of 
them  from  Rome  itself,  or  the  neighborhood  thereof,  during 
the  persecutions  under  the  Roman  emperors.  It  is  probable, 
that  the  Truth  was  introduced  by  both  these  means.  In  a 
petition,  presented  by  the  Waldenses  to  Philibert  Emanuel, 
duke  of  Savoy  and  prince  of  Piedmont,  in  the  year  1559, 
they  use  the  following  ^language  :  — '  We  likewise  beseech 
your  royal  highness  to  consider,  that  this  religion  which  we 
profess  is  not  only  ours,  nor  hath  it  been  invented  by  men  of 
late  years,  as  is  falsely  reported,  but  it  was  the  religion  of 
our  fathers,  grandfathers,  and  great-grandfathers,  and  other 
yet  more  ancient  predecessors  of  ours,  and  of  the  blessed 
martyrs,  confessors,  prophets,  and  apostles  ;  and  if  any  can 
prove  the  contrary,  we  are  ready  to  subscribe,  and  yield 
thereunto.'^  And  Leger,  their  great  historian,  states,  that 
all  the  petitions  and  addresses  of  these  people  to  their 
sovereigns,  from  the  earliest  times,  contained  a  sentence 
to  the  same  effect,  namely,  that  they  had  been  in  the  en- 
joyment of  the  liberty  of  conscience,  '  da  ogni  teinpo,  da 
tempo  immemoriale'  from  all  time,  from  time  immemorial.  ^ 
'  And  is  it  not  extraordinary,'  he  asks,  '  that  it  has  never 
once  happened,  that  any  of  the  dukes  of  Savoy,  or  their 
ministers,  should  have  offered  the  least  contradiction  to  the 
pretensions  of  their  Vaudois  subjects  ?  Again  and  again  it 
has  been  asserted  by  them,  "  we  are  descendants  of  those, 
who  from  father  to  son  have  preserved  entire  the  apostolical 
Faith  in  the  valleys  which  we  now  occupy."     Their  preten- 


4  History  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  of  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont,  etc.,  p.  228.  By- 
Samuel  Morland,  Esq.     London,  1653. 

5  Histoire  des  Eglises  Vaudoises,  liv.  i.  p.  158.  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  in  his 
History  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  in  tlie  Valleys  of  Pied7nont,  gives  several  of  these 
petitions  and  addresses. 

25 


290  THE    WALDENSES. 

sions  have  been  passed  over  in  silence.  They  have  been 
suffered  to  repeat  their  demands  from  reign  to  reign,  and  to 
carr J  them  to  the  feet  of  their  sovereigns  :  —  "  Permit  us  to 
enjoy  that  free  exercise  of  our  religion  which  we  have  en- 
joyed from  time  out  of  mind,  and  before  the  dukes  of  Savoy 
became  princes  of  Piedmont."  I  have  still  the  copy  of  a  re- 
monstrance, in  which  I  myself  inserted  these  very  words,  — 
^'' Dinanzi  che  li  DucM  di  Savoya  fossero  Principi  di 
Piemonte,'^  etc.,  etc.,  and  which  the  President  Truchi,  the 
ablest  man  in  the  state,  has  endeavored  to  answer  on  every 
other  point  but  this.  He  has,  however,  never  dared  to  touch 
upon  our  antiquity.'  '  And  formerly,  in  the  year  1559/ 
continues  the  same  author,  '  when  Emanuel  Philibert  was 
told,  that  his  Waldensian  petitioners  professed  the  Faith 
which  had  been  handed  down  to  them  by  their  forefathers 
from  the  times  of  the  martyrs  and  apostles,  would  that  great 
prince  and  his  court  have  endured  to  be  told  this  by  these 
poor  people,  if  there  had  been  one  particle  of  truth  to  be 
discovered  to  the  contrary,  by  the  ministers  of  his  royal 
highness,  or  by  his  ecclesiastics,  or  if  any  of  them  could  have 
maintained  the  opposite,  and  shown,  that  they  did  not  descend 
from  father  to  son  from  the  times  of  the  martyrs,  and  con- 
fessors, and  holy  apostles  ? '  ^ 

We  learn,  from  these  extracts,  what  were  the  opinions  of 
the  best  informed  among  the  Waldenses  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  in  relation  to  their  origin.  We  will  only  add,  at 
present,  that  in  one  of  the  manuscripts,  dated  1587,  and  de- 
posited in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  in 
England,  the  question  is  put :  '  At  what  time  have  the  re- 
ligion and  state  (statd)  been  preached  in  the  valleys  ? '  The 
answer  is,  — '  About  five  hundred  years,  as  can  be  collected 


6  Histoire  des  Eglises  Vaudoises,  liv.  i.  pp.  1G4,  165,  quoted  by  Rev.  Dr.  Gilly,  in  his 
Waldensian  Researches,  pp.  46-49. 


TESTIMONY    OF    THEIR    ENEMIES. 


291 


from  many  histories  ;  but,  according  to  the  belief  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  valleys,  it  has  been  from  time  immemorial, 
and  from  father  to  son,  since  the  time  of  the  apostles.^  ^  The 
replies  of  various  pastors,  to  whom  we  ourselves  have  ad- 
dressed similar  questions,  have  invariably  been  to  the  same 
effect.^ 

IV.     Testimony  of  their  Enemies  on  tMs  Subject. 

Let  us  now  see  what  their  enemies  have  said  on  this 
point.  And  here  there  is  an  abundance  of  testimony,  from 
which,  however,  we  can  extract  only  a  few  instances.  We 
begin  with  Reinerius,  who  uses  the  following  language  re- 
specting these  people,  whom  he  denominates  Leonists. 
^  Concerning  the  sects  of  ancient  heretics,  let  it  be  observed, 
that  they  have  been  more  than  seventy  in  number ;  all  of 
which,  save  those  of  the  Manicheans,  the  Arians,  the  Runca- 
rians,  and  the  Leonists,  which  have  infected  Germany,  have, 
through  God's  favor,  been  extirpated.  Among  all  these 
sects,  which  either  still  exist,  or  which  have  formerly  existed, 
there  is  not  one  more  pernicious  to  the  Church  [of  Rome,] 
than  that  of  the  Leonists  ;  and  this  for  three  reasons.  First, 
because  it  has  been  of  longer  continuance  ;  for  some  say,  that 
it  has  lasted  from  the  time  of  Sylvester ;  ^  others,  from  the 
time  of  the  apostles.     Second,  because  it  is  more  general ; 


1  Morland'3  History  of  the  Evangelical  Churches,  etc.  p.  29. 

8  To  the  above-cited  testimonies  of  the  Waldenses  themselves  in  regard  to  their 
origin,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  what  they  modestly  say  on  this  point,  when  ad- 
dressing the  Reformers,  in  the  sixteenth  centurj-  :  — '  Our  ancestors  have  often 
recounted  to  us,  that  we  have  existed  from  the  time  of  the  apostles.  In  all  matters, 
nevertheless,  we  agree  with  you  ;  and,  thinking  as  you  think,  from  the  very  days  of 
the  apostles  themselves  we  have  ever  been  concordant  respecting  the  Faith.  In 
this  particular  only,  we  may  be  said  to  differ  from  you  ;  that,  through  our  fault,  and 
the  slowness  of  our  genius,  we  do  not  understand  the  sacred  writers  with  such 
strict  correctness  as  yourselves.'  See  Faber's  Inquiry  intot/ie  History  and  Theology 
of  the  Ancient  Vallenses  and  Albigenses,  book  iii.  pp.  288,  289. 

9  Sylvester  was  Bishop  of  Rome,  A.  D.  317. 


i 


292  THE    WALDENSES. 

for  there  is  scarcely  a  country,  in  which  it  does  not  exist. 
Third,  because,  that  whilst  all  other  sects,  through  their  mon- 
strous Uasphemies  against  God,  strike  horror  into  the  hearers, 
this  of  the  Leonists  has  a  great  appearance  of  piety,  inasmuch 
as  they  live  justly  before  men,  and  believe,  not  only,  all  the  arti- 
cles of  the  creed,  but  every  sound  doctrine  respecting  the  Deity  ; 
only  they  speak  evil  of  the  Roman  Church  and  clergy,  to 
which  the  multitude  of  the  laity  are  quite  ready  to  give 
credence.^" 

That  Reinerius  speaks  of  the  Waldenses  under  the  name 
of  Leonists,  is  quite  clear,  from  what  he  says  in  other  places. 
In  addition  to  this,  Pilichdorf,  a  writer  of  the  same  century, 
expressly  says,  that  the  persons  who  claim  to  have  existed 
from  the  time  of  Pope  Sylvester,  ivere  the  Waldenses}^  And 
Claude  Scyssel,  Archbishop  of  Turin,  in  the  latter  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  and 
who,  from  his  vicinity  to  them,  as  well  as  from  the  fact  that 
they  were  geographically  comprehended  in  his  diocess,  must 
have  had  good  opportunities  of  knowing  their  origin  and 
history,  tells  us,  that  the  Waldenses  of  Piedmont  took  their 
origin  from  a  person  named  Leo,  ivho,  in  the  time  of  the  Em- 
peror Constantine,  execrating  the  avarice  of  Pope  Sylvester, 
and  the  immoderate  endowment  of  the  Roman  Church,  seceded 


10  Reinerius  de  Heret.  in  Bibliotheca  Patnim,  vol.  xiii.  c.  iv.  p.  299.  This  Reine- 
rius Sacchon,  as  he  was  called,  was  a  native  of  Placentia,  and  wrote  against  the 
Waldenses  about  the  year  12.50.  He  had  once  been  a  pastor  among  that  people, 
but  apostatized,  and  became  afterwards  an  inquisitor,  as  we  learn  from  the  testi- 
mony of  Anthony  Senensis,  [Bibliotheca  Patrum,  vol.  iv.  part  ii.  col.  740.)  No  man, 
then,  had  a  better  opportunity  than  this  Reinerius  for  knowing  the  doctrines, 
manner  of  life,  and  probable  origin  of  the  Waldenses.  Nor  can  he  be  charged  with 
giving  too  favorable  an  account  of  them.  There  are  also  manifest  references  to  the 
Waldenses  in  the  writings  of  Bernard,  of  Clairvaux,  who  died  A.  D.  1153.  See  his 
sixty-fifth  and  sixty-sixth  Sermons  on  the  Canticles.  And  in  those  of  Ecbert,  who 
flourished  A.  D.  1160.     See  Biblioth.  Patrum,  tom.  xii.  p.  898. 

n  Pilichdorf.  Contra  Waldenses,  in  Biblioth.  Patrum,  vol.  xiii.  p.  312. 


WHY    THEY    WERE    CALLED    LEONISTS.  293 

from  that  Communion,  and  drew  after  him  all  those  who  enter- 
tained right  sentiments  concerning  the  Christian  religion.^ 

These  statements  prove,  incontestably,  that  the  Leonists 
and  the  Waldenses  were  the  same  people. 

V.      Why  the  Waldenses  ivere  called  Leonists. 

It  is  obvious,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  valleys  in  Pied- 
mont were  not  denominated  Leonists  from  Peter  Waldo,  of 
Lyons,  and  his  followers,  who  were  also,  by  this  same  Reine- 
rius,  called  Leonists ;  for  the  Lyonese  Reformer  lived  in  the 
eleventh  century.  Nor  is  it  less  certain,  that  neither  the 
history  nor  the  traditions  of  the  Waldenses  make  mention  of 
any  Leo  as  their  foimde)-,  as  Claude  Scyssel  seems  to  assert, 
for  they  have  in  all  times  maintained  that  their  Communion 
descends  in  a  direct,  unbroken  line,  from  the  apostles.  But, 
that  there  was  some  eminent  teacher  among  them,  or  with 
whom  they  had  intimate  relations,  at  an  early  period,  M^ho 
bore  that  name,  and  from  whom  they  were  often  called  Le- 
onists, is  not  at  all  improbable.  On  the  contrary,  indeed,  we 
can  hardly  account  for  the  application  of  that  name  to  them, 
but  upon  such  an  hypothesis. 

But,  who  was  that  individual?  This  is  an  interesting 
inquiry.  On  this  point  we  will  give  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Faber,  who  says  :  —  '  Though  I  think  it  clear  that  the  Val- 
denses  ^^  could  not  have  been  called  Leonists,  from  the  Lyons 
of  the  opulent  merchant  Peter,  that  is  to  say,  from  Lyons 
which  is  seated  on  the  Rhone,  I  am  not  without  a  strong  sus- 
picion, that,  ultimately,  and  through  an  entirely  different 
channel,   the  title  may  have  been  borrowed  from   another 

12  Claude  Scyssel,  Taurin.  Adv.  error,  et  Sect.  Taldens.  fold.  5,  6,  quoted  by  Mr. 
Faber,  in  his  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the  Ancient  Vallenses  and  Albi- 
genses,  pp.  275,  276. 

13  Mr.  Faber,  throughout  his  work,  employs  the  terms  Valdensea,  Vallenses,  and 
Vaudois,  for  Waldenses. 

25* 


294  THE    WALDENSES. 

Lyons  ;  from  Lyons,  to  wit,  in  Aqiiitain,  upon  the  borders  of 
the  Pyrenees  ;  from  Lugdunum  Convenamm,,  I  mean,  which 
now  bears  the  name  of  St.  Bertrand,  and  which  is  situated  in 
what  (from  Convence)  is  styled  the  Pays  de  Cominges. 

'  My  conjecture  is,  that  the  traditional  Leo  of  the  Valden- 
ses,  however  his  history  may  have  been  circumstantially 
distorted  and  chronologically  misplaced,  is  no  other  than  the 
famous  Vigilantius  ;  of  whom,  in  immediate  connection  with 
the  primitive  Christians  of  the  Valleys  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century,  we  shall  presently  hear  again. 

'  This  holy  man,  as  we  fortunately  learn  from  the  very 
scurrility  of  Jerome,^*  was  actually  born  in  the  precise  town 
of  Lyons,  or  Convena?,  in  Aquitain.  Whence,  from  the  place 
of  his  nativity,  he  would  obviously  be  called,  among  his  hosts 
of  the  valleys,  Vigilantius  Leo,  or  Vigilantius  the  Leonist. 
His  proper  local  appellation  he  communicated,  if  I  mistake 
not,  to  his  congenial  friends,  the  Vallenses  of  Piedmont ;  and 
his  memory,  as  we  see,  was  affectionately  cherished  by  them, 
down  even  to  the  time  of  Claude  Scyssel. 

'  Thus  ultimately,  I  apprehend,  the  name  of  Leonist  was 
derived  from  Lyons ;  not,  indeed,  from  the  more  celebrated 
Lyons  on  the  Rhone  ;  but  from  the  Lyons  of  Aquitain,  or 
the  LAigdunum  Gonvenarum  of  the  Pyrenees.'  ^^ 

14  That  Jerome  is  reckoned  among  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  is  most  certain  ;  but 
that  he  deserves  the  name  of  holy,  may  M'ell  be  doubted.  To  speak  plainly,  he  was 
one  o[ the  hardest  Christians  ihat  have  ever  lived.  Indeed,  there  is  so  little  of  the 
spirit  of  the  blessed  Redeemer  in  his  writings,  that  we  may  well  doubt  whether  he 
knew  any  thing  of  that  inward  experience  of  the  transforming  influence  of  the 
gospel,  without  which  no  man  shall  see  the  Lord.  His  language  is '  scurrilous  '  to  a 
degree  which  might  well  be  pronounced  incredible.  As  to  Vigilantius,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  far  better  man  than  he,  Jerome  seems  at  a  loss  sometimes  for  epi- 
thets sufficiently  opprobrious  to  apply  to  him.  And  yet  his  vocabulary  of  language 
worthy  of  Billingsgate  seems  to  be  inexhaustible.  But  we  will  neither  trouble  the 
reader,  nor  pollute  our  pages  with  any  specimens.  Those  who  wish,  may  consult 
his  works,  which  display,  we  mayrcmark,  no  want  of  talent. 

"io  An  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the  Ancient  Vallenses  and  Albigenses, 
pp.  278-260. 


TESTIMONY    TO    THEIR    ANTIQUITY.  295 

This  position  Mr.  Faber  undertakes  to  establish,  and,  in 
doing  so,  to  prove  the  antiquity  of  the  Waldenses,  by  an 
examination  of  Jerome's  Controversy  with  Yigilantius,  in 
relation  to  the  points  at  issue  between  them.  And  it  must 
be  conceded,  that  he  has  made  a  most  plausible  case  of  it.^^ 
In  these  views.  Dr.  Gilly  coincides,  in  his  recent  work  re- 
specting Vigilantius.^''  And,  although  we  cannot  affirm  that 
either  of  them  has  demonstrated  that  the  Leo,  of  whom 
Claude  Scyssel  speaks,  was  actually  Vigilantius,  yet  it  must 
be  admitted,  that  they  have  rendered  it  extremely  probable. 

VI.      Testimony   of   Rorenco,    CassiJii,   and   others,   to    the 
Antiquity  of  the  Waldenses. 

We  have  given  the  testimony  of  the  Inquisitor  Reinerius 
on  the  subject  of  the  antiquity  of  the  Waldenses ;  we  now  add 
that  of  a  few  more  authors  from  among  the  ranks  of  their 
enemies.  And  first,  that  of  Marco  Aurelio  Rorenco,  grand 
prior  of  St.  Roch,  in  Turin,  and  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
valley  of  Luserne.  This  man  was  commissioned  to  inquire 
into  the  history  of  the  *  Men  of  the  Valleys,'  and  must  have 
had  opportunities  of  consulting  any  documents  relating  to 
them  that  might  be  found  both  among  the  Waldenses  them- 
selves, and  in  the  archives  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  The  re- 
sults of  his  investigations  are  contained  in  a  volume  of  his, 
published  at  Turin,  in  the  year  1G32.^^  In  this  work  he 
states  that  the  heresy  of  the  eighth  century  (by  which  he 
means  the  doctrines  of  Claude  of  Turin)  was  continued  in 
these  valleys  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries ;  that  the 
Waldenses  were  no  new  sect,  but  only  the  revival  of  an  old 

16  An  Inquiry,  etc.,  book  iii.  ch.  ii.  pp.  290-299. 

17  Yigilantius  and  his  Times,  (published  in  London,  1844,)  chap.  xv.  pp.  317-339. 

18  The  title  of  this  work  is  Narratione  dell'  Introduttione  delle  Heresie  nelle  Valli. 


* 


296  THE    WALDENSES. 

one  ;  and  tliat  it  was  impossible  to  ascertain,  with  certainty, 
when  it  had  first  gained  an  entrance  into  these  valleys.  To 
the  same  effect  was  the  testimony  received  from  themselves. 
*  They  declared/  he  says,  '  that  it  had  not  been  within  fifty 
years  merely,  that  they  had  had  knowledge  of  the  pure  Truth, 
but  that  it  was  impossible  for  any  one  to  be  ignorant,  that,  for 
more  than  five  or  six  centuries,  they  had  taught  the  same.' 
And  he  adds,  in  proof  of  their  early  existence  as  a  religious 
body :  — '  No  edict  can  be  found  of  any  prince,  who  gave 
permission  for  the  introduction  of  this  religion  into  these 
parts.  The  princes  only  grant  permission  to  their  subjects  to 
continue  in  the  same  religion  which  they  had  received  from 
their  ancestors.'  ^^ 

Cassini,  an  Italian  priest,  testified  that  he  found  it  handed 
down,  that  the  '  Waldenses  were  as  ancient  as  the  Christian 
Church.'  '^  Henri  de  Corvie  describes  them  as  '  descended 
from  an  ancient  race  of  simple  men,  who  inhabit  the  Alps 
and  their  vicinity,  and  have  always  been  fond  of  ancient 
usages.' ^^  And  the  monk  Belvidere,  in  his  reports  as  In- 
quisitor, laments  that  these  '  heretics  have  been  found  in  all 
periods  of  history,  in  the  valley  of  Angrogna,'  ^^  by  which 
term  he  evidently  means  all  the  region  occupied  by  the 
Waldenses,  because  that  valley  is  central  to  their  country. 

To  very  ancient  histories  of  the  Waldenses  no  appeal  can 
be  made,  for  they  were  all  destroyed  by  their  enemies  during 
the  many  persecutions,  which  they  underwent  from  time  to 
time.  Their  historian,  Leger,  the  president  of  their  synod, 
and  the  most  distinguished  of  their  pastors  at  that  epoch, 
had  collected  a  goodly  number  of  ancient  manuscripts  and 

19  Leger ^  pp.  173,  174,  quoted  by  Dr.  Henderson,  in  Vaudois^  pp.  8,  9. 

20  Leger ^  p.  15. 

21  Histoiredes  Vaudois^  par  A.  Muston.     Paris,  1834. 

22  Leger,  pp.  149, 169. 


books  ;  but  tliev  were  all  taken  from  him  when  he  was  car- 
ried to  Turin,  and  thrown  into  prison,  in  the  year  1655.  Nor 
could  he  find  any  materials  for  the  history  which  he  after- 
wards wrote,  save  by  going  into  Dauphiny,  and  visiting  the 
remains  of  the  Waldenses,  who  still  lingered  in  the  valleys 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Alps. 

yil.      Opinion  of    Voltaire   respecting   the    Origin   of   the 
Waldenses. 

We  have  given  the  testimonies  of  the  Waldenses  them- 
selves, and  that  of  their  Roman  Catholic  enemies  ;  let  us 
add  that  of  Yoltaire,  an  enemy  to  Christianity,  under  every 
name. 

^  Auricular  confession,'  he  informs  us,  '  was  not  received  in 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  in  the  countries  beyond  the 
Loire,  in  Languedoc,  in  the  Alps ;  of  this  Alcuin  complains, 
in  his  letters.  The  people  of  those  districts  seem  ever  to 
have  had  a  disposition  to  adhere  to  the  usages  of  the  primi- 
tive Church,  and  to  reject  the  dogmas  and  the  customs  which 
the  Church,  when  more  enlarged,  saw  proper  to  adopt. 
Those  who  were  called  Manicheans,  those  who  have  been 
since  called  Waldenses,  Albigenses,  Lollards,  and  who  have 
reappeared  so  often  under  so  many  other  names,  were  re- 
maiiis  of  the  first  Christians  of  Gaul,  attached  to  several 
ancient  usages  which  the  court  of  Eome  has  since  changed, 
and  to  vague  opinions,  upon  which  that  court  has  authorita- 
tively decided  with  the  j)rogress  of  time.  For  example,  the 
early  Christians  knew  nothing  of  images.  It  is  a  thing 
remarkable  enough,  that  these  men,  almost  unknown  to  the 
rest  of  the  world,  should  have  constantly  persevered,  from 
time  immemorial,  in  usages  which  have  been  changed  every 
where  else.'^ 

23  Additions  a  PHistoire  Gcnerale.    12mo.   pp.  57,  71. 


I 


298 


THE    WALDENSES. 


VIII.      Opinions  of  distinguished  Protestants  in  Relation  to 
this  Subject. 

Of  these  we  can  only  give  two  or  three  examples.  'As 
for  the  Waldenses,'  says  Beza,  '  give  me  leave  to  call  them 
the  very  seed  of  the  primitive  and  pure  Christian  Church, 
being  those  who  have  been  so  upheld  by  the  wonderful  prov- 
idence of  God,  that  neither  those  numberless  storms  and 
tempests,  whereby  the  whole  Christian  world  hath  been 
shaken,  nor  those  horrible  persecutions  which  have  been  so 
directly  raised  against  them,  have  been  able  to  prevail  upon 
them  to  yield  a  voluntary  submission  to  Roman  tyranny  and 
idolatry.'  ^^ 

'  With  the  daicn  of  history,^  says  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
*  we  discover  some  simple  Christians  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Alps,  where  they  still  exist  under  the  ancient  name  of  Vau- 
dois,  who,  by  the  light  of  the  New  Testament,  saw  the  extra- 
ordinary contrast  between  the  purity  of  primitive  times  and 
the  vices  of  the  gorgeous  and  imperial  hierarchy  which  sur- 
rounded them.  They  were  not  so  much  distinguished  from 
others  by  opinions,  as  by  the  pursuit  of  a  more  innocent  and 
severe  life.'  '^  On  the  list  of  distinguished  Protestant  authors, 
who  have  maintained  similar  opinions  respecting  the  apos- 
tolical, or,  at  least,  the  very  early  origin  of  the  Waldenses, 
we  may  place  Usher,  Mede,  Vitringa,  Sleidan,  Drelincourt, 
and  Wake  ;  names,  certainly,  of  no  ordinary  authority. 

24  Beza,  Icones  Viroruni  doctrina  ei  virtute  illustrium ;  quoted  by  Dr.  Gilly,  in  his 
Waldensimi  Researches^  p.  10, 

25  History  of  England,  by  the  Right  Hon.  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  in  Lardner's 
Cabinet  Cyclopczdia,  vol.  i.  p.  321. 


ANTIQUITY    OF    THEIR    DIALECT.  299 


IX.      The  Antiquity  of  the  Waldenses  further  attested  hy  the 
Antiquity  of  the  Dialect  which  they  speaJc. 

On  this  subject  M.  Renouard,  author  of  an  elaborate  work 
on  the  Provengcd  language  and  literature,  and  who  discusses 
this  question  not  as  an  ecclesiastical  historian,  but  simply  as 
a  philologist,  says  that  '  the  dialect  of  the  Vaudois  (the  Wal- 
denses) is  an  idiom  intermediate  hetiveen  the  decomposition  of 
the  language  of  the  Romans  and  the  establishment  of  a  new 
grammatical  system ;  a  circumstance  which  attests  the  high 
antiquity  of  this  dialect  in  the  country  which  this  people 
inhabit:  -^ 

In  speaking  of  the  Nohle  Lesson,  the  oldest  work  which  the 
Waldenses  have,  and  which  was,  as  is  conceded  on  all  hands, 
written  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  consequently  more  ancient 
than  the  greater  part  of  the  songs  and  other  writings  of  the 
Troubadours,  this  author  says  :  — '  The  language  seems  to  7ne 
to  he  of  an  epoch  already  far  separated  from  its  original  for- 
mation ;  inasmuch  as  we  may  remark  the  suppression  of  some 
final  consonants ;  a  pecidiarity  which  announces,  that  the 
words  of  the  long-spohen  dialect  had  already  lost  so?ne  2)ortio7i 
of  their  primitive  terminations^ 

The  philological  fact,  here  stated,  proves  the  high  antiquity 
of  the  Waldenses  ;  for  they  must  have  retired  to  those  valleys 
at  a  remote  period,  if  they  left  the  plains  of  Italy  before  the 
establishment  of  the  new  grammatical  system,  of  which  M. 
Renouard  speaks.  '  Hence,'  remarks  Mr.  Faber,  '  the  pri- 
mevally  Latin  Vaudois  must  have  retired  from  the  lowlands 
of  Italy  to  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  in  the  very  days  of 
primitive   Christianity,  and   before   the  breaking   up  of  the 


26  Monumens  de  la  Langue  Romane,  { Choix  des  Poesies  Originales  des  Troubadours,) 
torn,  ii,  p.  137. 


300  THE    WALDENSES. 

Roman  empire  by  the  persevering  incursions  of  the  Teutonic 
nations.  But  it  is  scarcely  probable,  that  men  would  leave 
their  homes  in  the  fair,  and  warm,  and  fertile  country  of  Italy, 
for  the  wildness  of  desolate  mountains,  and  for  the  squalidity 
of  neglected  valleys  —  valleys,  which  would  require  all  the 
severe  labor  of  assiduous  cultivation ;  and  mountains,  which 
no  labor  could  make  productive,  unless  some  very  paramount 
and  overbearing  cause  had  constrained  them  to  undertake 
such  an  emigration.  Now  a  cause,  precisely  of  this  descrip- 
tion, we  have  in  the  persecutions,  which,  during  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  centuries,  occurred  under  the  emperors 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Maximin,  and  Decius,  and  Valerian, 
and  Diocletian.'  ^ 

Having  said  what  is  sufficient  respecting  the  origin  and 
antiquity  of  the  Waldenses,  we  shall  proceed  to  give  an  out- 
line of  their  history,  after  having  first  taken  some  notice  of 
the  country  which  they  inhabit. 


27  An  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the  Ancient  Vallenses  and  Albigenses, 
book  iii.  pp.  285, 286. 


CHAPTER  11. 

A   BRIEF    DESCRIPTION     OF     THE     COUNTRY    INHABITED     BY 
THE    WALDENSES. 

To  enable  the  reader  to  understand  well  the  sketch  of  the 
history  of  the  Waldenses,  and  the  notice  of  their  present 
condition,  which  are  to  follow,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should 
have  some  idea  of  the  position  and  character  of  the  country 
in  which  they  dwell.  To  this  subject  we  purpose  to  devote 
the  present  chapter. 

I.     A  general  Notice  of  their  Territory. 

We  begin,  then,  by  remarking,  that  the  country  inhabited 
by  this  martyr-people  is  in  that  portion  of  the  States  of  Sar- 
dinia ^^  which  is  called  Piedmont ;  a  large  and  fertile  country 
lying  east  of  France  and  Savoy,  and  south  of  the  western 
Cantons  of  Switzerland.  This  country  derives  its  name  from 
its  geographical  position,  as  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, called  the  Alps.  The  word  '  Piedmont '  is,  however, 
strictly  speaking,  applicable  only  to  the  partly  level,  partly 
undulating  and  hilly  country,  which  lies  immediately  east 
and  south  of  the  great  mountain  range  just  named.  But 
usage  applies  it  to  large  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of,  Sar- 
dinia, though  much  of  it  lies  in  the  Alps,  and  not  at  their 
foot. 

The  district  of   Piedmont    in  which  the  Waldenses  live 


28  Commonly  called  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  which  embraces  Piedmont,  Savo7, 
the  territories  of  Nice  and  Genoa,  and  the  Island  of  Sardinia^  whence  the  kmgdom 
derives  its  name. 

26 


302  THE    WALDENSES. 

lies  in  the  Alps,  and  is  situated  nearly  due  southwest  from 
Turin,  at  the  distance  of  about  thirty  miles  from  that  city. 
Commencing  just  at  the  base  of  the  Alps,  it  reaches  up  to  the 
dividing  ridge  which  separates  Piedmont  from  France  and 
Savoy,  of  which  the  highest  point,  called  Mont  Viso,  is  on 
the  sQuthwestern  corner  of  the  Waldensian  territory ;  and 
Mont  Genevre,  a  peak  of  less  elevation,  stands  on  its  north- 
western border.  Mont  Viso  exceeds  twelve  thousand  feet  in 
height,  and  is  covered,  as  to  its  summit,  with  perpetual 
snow.  It  has  been  rightly  called  the  Jungfraii  ^  of  the  South, 
because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  pure  and  beautiful  moun- 
tain of  that  name,  which  is  in  Switzerland.  No  one,  it  is  said, 
has  ever  ascended  to  its  summit,  though  not  so  high  as  Mont 
Blanc.  This  is  owing  to  the  steepness,  which  it  derives  from 
its  conical  form. 

"We  have  stated,  that  the  territory  of  the  Waldenses  lies 
wholly  in  the  Alps,  and  this  is  true.  Apparently,  however, 
the  parish  of  St.  Jean,  which  forms  a  portion  of  the  most 
eastern  frontier  of  their  country,  lies  in  the  plain  below, 
instead  of  being  within  the  mountain  range.  But,  in  reality, 
that  parish  lies  in  the  wide  gorge,  if  we  may  so  term  it,  or 
opening,  between  two  projecting  spurs  of  the  Alps,  one  on 
the  north  and  the  other  on  the  south.  It  is  w^ithin  the  valley 
of  the  river  Pelice,  just  above  the  issuing  of  that  river  from 
the  region  of  the  Alps  into  the  plain  country  below.  As  that 
part  of  the  valley  is  wide,  the  parish  of  St.  Jean  appears  to 
be  lying  in  the  lowlands,  instead  of  being  within  the  embrace 
of  the  mountains. 

This  parish  contains  the  best  land  appertaining  to  the 
Waldenses.  It  is  undulating,  rather  than  level,  is  finely 
cultivated,  and  densely  settled.  Besides  St.  Jean,  which  is 
its  chief  village,  it  has  a  number  of  places,  which  are  either 
villages  or  hamlets.     In  like  manner,  the  parish  of  Prarustin 

29  The  Virgin. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    COUNTRY.  303 

is  a  finely  undulating  one,  and  resembles  the  lowlands  which 
border  the  Alps  on  their  eastern  side ;  but  it  is,  properly 
speaking,  within  the  valley  of  the  river  Clusone. 

The  parishes  of  St.  Jean  and  Prarustin  are,  in  fact,  the 
frontier  of  the  country  on  the  east,  and  far  exceed,  in  extent 
of  tillable  and  fertile  land,  any  of  the  interior  and  more 
mountainous  parishes.  These  parishes,  one  being  the  lowest 
in  the  valley  of  Luserne,  and  the  other  the  lowest  in  that  of 
Clusone,  shall  be  our  points  of  departure,  when  we  set  out  to 
explore  the  interior  of  the  Waldensian  country.  The  former 
of  these  parishes  lies  north  of  the  Pelice,  and  the  latter  south 
of  the  Clusone,  which  rivers  form,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps, 
the  southern  and  northern  boundaries  of  the  land  of  the 
Waldenses. 

By  an  inspection  of  the  accompanying  map,  the  reader 
will  perceive,  that  their  country  is  but  a  few  miles  wide  on  its 
eastern  border,  and  that  the  parishes  above  named  are  like 
advanced  outposts,  or  rather  they  are  the  gateways,  through 
which  one  must  enter  it  from  the  east.  A  lofty  mountain 
projects  eastward  between  them,  from  the  summit  of  which 
there  is  one  of  the  finest  views  in  the  world.  As  the  spec- 
tator, standing  on  that  spot  some  fine  day  in  midsummer, 
looks  to  the  south,  he  has  the  beautiful  parish  of  St.  Jean  at 
his  feet,  covered  with  vineyards  and  fruitful  fields,  verdant 
meadows,  and  dotted  over  with  little  villages  and  hamlets. 
If  he  extend  his  view  further  in  the  same  direction,  it  will 
rest  on  the  extended  valley  of  Luserne,  and  take  in  the  vil- 
lage of  that  name.  La  Tour,  and  many  others.  Beyond  this 
lovely  valley,  he  will  see  the  lofty  Envers  rearing  up  its 
head ;  in  the  southwest,  he  will  behold,  at  a  great  distance, 
the  snow-clad  peak  of  Mont  Viso,  out-topping  the  intervening 
high  and  hoary  ranges  of  the  Alps.  If  he  turn  to  the  east, 
the  vast  valley  of  the  Po  spreads  out  before  him,  with  all  its 
richness  and  beauty.     To  the  northeast  lies  the  great  plain,  in 


304  THE    WALDENSES. 

which  is  situated  the  city  of  Pignerol,  and  the  distant  capital, 
bordered  on  the  west  by  the  stupendous  ranges  of  the  Alps, 
the  highest  of  which,  in  an  almost  due  northern  direction,  is 
Mont  Cenis.  When  the  atmosphere  is  perfectly  clear,  it  is 
said  that  the  city  of  Milan  can  be  discerned  from  this  elevated 
point,  and  especially  the  white  walls  of  its  splendid  cathedral. 

On  the  northeast,  the  country  of  the  Waldenses  is  bounded 
by  the  river  Clusone  to  the  distance  of  about  ten  miles  ;  then 
the  boundary  quits  that  stream  at  a  point  some  two  miles 
above  Perouse,  and  follows  the  dividing  mountain  which 
hedges  in  the  valley  of  St.  Martin,  and  separates  the  streams 
which  flow  into  the  river  St.  Martin,  from  those  which  flow 
into  the  upper  portion  of  the  Clusone,  in  what  is  called 
the  Valley  of  Pragela.  Then,  turning  due  south,  it  runs 
along  the  ridge  of  the  Alps  that  separates  Piedmont 
from  Savoy  and  France,  till  it  almost  reaches  Mont  Yiso. 
On  the  south,  the  Pelice  is  the  boundary  some  four  miles,  up 
to  a,  short  distance  above  Luserne,  which  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river.  From  that  point  it  pursues  an  almost 
due  southern  direction,  across  the  valley  of  the  Lusernette,  a 
small  branch  of  the  Pelice,  to  the  top  of  a  ridge  of  the  Alps, 
which  it  pursues  due  west  till  it  intersects  the  western 
boundary,  already  described,  at  a  short  distance  north  of 
Mont  Viso. 

The  greatest  length  of  the  country,  from  southeast  to 
northwest,  is  about  twenty-two  miles ;  whilst  its  greatest 
width  scarcely  exceeds  sixteen.  Its  area  may  be  estimated 
at  considerably  less  than  three  hundred  square  miles.  The 
Protestant  or  Waldensian  population  is  rather  less  than 
twenty -two  thousand ;  and  the  Roman  Catholics  living  among 
them  are  more  than  four  thousand ;  making  the  entire  num- 
ber of  the  inhabitants  in  this  little  district  of  country  twenty- 
six  thousand,  or  about  ninety-five  souls,  on  an  average,  to  each 
square  mile.     This  is  a  greater  population  to  the  square  mile 

4 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    COUNTRY.  305 

than  most  of  our  oldest  states  possess.  And  jet  it  -will 
appear,  in  the  course  of  our  notices  of  it,  that  the  AValdensian 
territory  is  almost  wholly  covered  with  mountains,  so  that 
probably  not  one  sixth  part  of  the  surface  can,  by  any  effort 
of  man,  be  cultivated. 

The  reader  will  perceive,  that  two  considerable  mountain- 
rivers  di'ain  this  country.  The  Felice,  and  all  its  upper 
confluents,  rise  in  its  southern  portion.  The  Clusone  only 
passes  along  its  northeastern  border,^"  whilst  one  of  its 
larger  branches,  the  St.  Martin,  runs  wholly  within  the 
northern  part  of  it.  Down  in  the  plain  below,  these  rivers 
unite,  and  flow  into  the  Po. 

The  only  parishes  which  have  much  good  land  in  them, 
are  those  of  Prarustin,  which  slopes  down  northward  to  the 
Clusone,  and  lies,  as  we  have  stated,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Waldensian  side  of  the  valley,  through  which  that  river 
runs ;  St.  Jean,  which  inclines  southward  to  the  Pelice,  and 
forms  the  entrance  into  the  valley  of  that  river,  or  of  Lu- 
serne,  as  it  is  commonly  called ;  La  Tour,  which  lies  higher 
up  the  Pelice ;  Villar,  which  lies  higher  up  still ;  and  Bobi, 
which  occupies  the  uppermost  part  of  the  same  valley.  As  to 
the  parishes  in  the  southwestern  half  of  the  valley  of  the  Clu- 
sone, and  those  in  the  valleys  of  Angrogna  and  St.  Martin, 
they  contain  almost  no  level  or  bottom  lands  at  all,  and  con- 
sist of  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  mountains,  of  which  but 
a  small  portion  can  be  cultivated. 

The  time  has  been,  when  the  Waldenses  not  only  pos- 
sessed the  entire  valley  of  the  Clusone  and  its  upper  streams, 
but  also  had  numerous  settlements  and  several  churches  in 
the  valley  of  the  Dora,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Susa,  towards 


30  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  the  Clusone,  in  all  its  course  along  the  Waldensian 
country,  passes  close  to  mountains,  which  stand  on  its  right  bank  ;  whilst  there  is  a 
wide  border  of  fertile  land  along  its  left.  Once,  that  fine  bank  belonged  to  the  poor 
Waldenses ;  now  it  is  in  the  possession  of  their  enemies. 

26* 


I 


306  THE    WALDENSES. 

the  north  ;  and  not  a  few  in  the  principality  of  Saluzzo,  and 
along  the  valley  of  that  confluent  of  the  Po  which  rises  near 
Mont  Viso,  and  gives  name  to  the  river  below.  But  perse- 
cution after  persecution,  and  war  after  war,  has  reduced  their 
territory  to  its  present  small  dimensions.  Whether  they  are 
to  suffer  further  encroachments,  time  only  can  reveal. 

Having   made   these     general    remarks   respecting   their 
country,  we  proceed  to  speak  of  it  in  detail. 

II.      The    Valley  of  Luserne. 

We  commence  our  notices  of  the  several  valleys  which 
compose  the  country  of  the  Waldenses,  with  that  of  Luserne, 
which  is  the  most  important  of  all.  At  its  entrance  we  come 
to  the  parish  of  St.  Jean,  of  which  the  chief  village  bears  the 
same  name.  Besides  this,  there  are  several  hamlets,  of 
which  the  most  important  are  Peyrot,  Gonin,  Blonat,  and 
Au-Fond.  The  church  which  the  people  of  this  parish  long 
frequented  was  in  the  village  Chiabas,  on  the  confines  of 
the  valley  of  Angrogna,  and  quite  remote  from  the  centre  of 
the  parish.  This  was  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy,  who  could  not  tolerate  a  Protestant 
church  in  St.  Jean,  because  of  its  proximity  to  Pignerol,  the  ^ 
nearest  city  in  Italy  to  the  country  of  the  Waldenses,  and  \ 
the  seat  of  an  archbishopric.  In  fact,  many  efforts  have 
been  made  by  the  bishops  of  that  city,  and  the  other  clergy, 
to  expel  the  Protestants  altogether  from  this  fertile  district. 
But  when  the  French  overran  this  country,  in  the  days  of 
Napoleon,  the  Waldenses,  who  were  treated  with  great  kind- 
ness by  that  wonderful  man,  and  at  once  liberated  from  every 
oppressive  edict  and  law  of  the  down-fallen  government,  lost 
no  time  in  erecting  a  substantial,  spacious,  and  fine-looking 
church.  It  will  contain,  it  is  said,  nine  hundred  persons. 
The  Roman  Catholics  tried  hard  to  have  it  closed,  and  for 
awhile  succeeded.     But  failing  in  that  object  ultimately,  they 


VALLEY    OF    LUSERNE.  307 

insisted  upon  having  a  great  screen,  or  bulwark  of  boards, 
erected  in  front  of  it,  in  order  that  the  singing  might  not  in- 
terrupt the  services  in  their  church,  which  stands  a  few  rods 
from  it. 

The  Protestant  population  of  the  parish  of  St.  Jean  is  two 
thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  souls;  that  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  is  only  one  hundred  and  twenty-five.  This 
is  by  far  the  richest  and  most  lovely  parish  in  all  the  valleys. 
It  is  covered  with  orchards,  vineyards,  and  cultivated  fields, 
which  produce  wheat,  rye,  barley,  potatoes,  flax,  hemp, 
Indian  corn,  etc.  Many  mulberry  trees  adorn  the  road-sides, 
and  enable  almost  all  the  families  to  make  more  or  less  of 
silk  for  their  own  use  or  for  trade.  Beautiful  meadows  slope 
down  to  the  Pelice,  which  flows  along  the  southern  border  of 
this  parish,  as  we  have  already  stated,  diffusing  fertility  over 
the  plain,  and  not  unfrequently  spreading  desolation,  when 
the  vernal  and  autumnal  freshets  cause  it  to  overflow  its 
banks. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  the  vineyards  in  this 
and  some  others  of  the  sub-alpine  parishes  of  the  Waldenses. 
High  stakes  or  poles  are  planted  in  rows  at  the  interval  of 
ten  or  fifteen  feet,  and  boughs  of  trees  fastened  to  the  tops  of 
these  are  extended  from  one  to  another,  forming  a  sort  of 
canopy,  when  covered  with  vines ;  and  yet  not  so  dense  as  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  wheat  or  corn,  etc.,  beneath.  On  the 
elevated  summits  of  the  hills  which  rise  near  the  mountain 
that  overhangs  this  parish  on  the  eastward,  many  beautiful 
little  copses  and  groves  of  forest  trees  are  seen,  and  give 
additional  charms  to  the  scene. 

Two  miles  above  St.  Jean,  stands  the  more  considerable 
village  of  La  Tour,  which  has  been  styled  the  '  Lacedsemon 
of  the  Valleys.'  It  is,  in  fact,  the  most  important  tovm  in 
the  country  of  the  Waldenses,  and  yet  its  population  does  not 
exceed,  we  should  think,  five  hundred  souls.     Several  ham- 


308  »  THE    WALDENSES. 

lets  adjacent,  such  as  St.  Margarita,  in  which  is  the  College 
of  the  Trinity,  erected  within  the  last  few  years,  and  of  which 
we  shall  speak  in  another  place,  and  a  Httle  beyond  it,  and 
further  up  the  valley,  is  Copies,  where  is  the  church  of  the 
parish  of  La  Tour,  and  a  hospital  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick- 
poor  of  the  valleys.  The  latter  was  erected  by  donations 
obtained  in  various  Protestant  countries.  Among  those  who 
most  liberally  contributed  to  found  this  excellent  charity, 
were  the  late  king  of  Prussia,  and  the  late  Emperor  Alexan- 
der of  Russia ;  the  former  of  whom  gave  ten  thousand  francs, 
and  the  latter  twelve  thousand  francs,  through  the  late  Count 
Waldbourg-Truchsess.  This  institution  is  a  great  blessing  to 
these  valleys,  and  is  admirably  conducted  by  the  worthy 
jjhysician  who  has  charge  of  it. 

La  Tour  stands  just  above  the  river  Angrogna,  and  about 
half  a  mile  from  the  point  where  that  stream  joins  the  Pelice. 
It  derives  its  name  from  a  fortress  which  once  existed  on  the 
high  rocky  eminence  that  stands  just  in  the  rear  of  it,  but 
which  has  been  so  entirely  dismantled  that  it  is  diiBcult  to 
ascertain  its  site.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  lately  erected 
a  large  cathedral  and  a  monastery,  at  this  place.  The  mon- 
astery is  to  serve,  not  only  as  the  residence  of  monks,  but 
also  as  a  seminary  in  which  young  men  may  be  trained  up 
for  the  conversion  of  the  '  heretics '  of  these  valleys. 

The  situation  of  La  Tour  combines  much  of  the  romantic 
and  the  beautiful.  It  stands  almost  at  the  junction  of  two 
rapid  mountain  rivers,  on  the  side  of  a  delightful  valley,  at 
the  base  of  the  lofty  Mount  Vandalin,  and  is  overhung  by 
the  bold  rock  of  the  Castelluzzo,  which  rears  its  head  up  like 
an  elevated  and  solitary  tower. 

The  parish  of  La  Tour,  in  its  level  and  alluvial  portions, 
is  fertile.  Its  productions  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  parish 
of  St.  Jean.  But  here  begin  to  be  seen  the  cultivated  spots, 
and  the  bold  terrace  rising  above  terrace,  on  the  mountain 


VALLEY    OF    LUSERNE.  309 

side,  which  form  so  remarkable  a  feature  in  these  valleys. 
The  population  of  this  parish  is  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  St. 
Jean ;  but,  what  is  remarkable,  the  Roman  Catholics  are  far 
more  numerous  than  in  other  portions  of  the  valleys. 

The  village  of  La  Tour,  like  most  of  those  in  the  parishes 
of  St.  Jean  and  Prarustin,  is  composed  of  houses  which  seem 
to  be  sufficiently  spacious  to  accommodate  conveniently  those 
who  occupy  them.  In  most  cases  they  are  built  of  brick  or 
stone,  and  stuccoed  or  whitewashed,  and  have  a  very  differ- 
ent appearance  from  the  little,  plain,  and  uncomfortable  stone 
houses,  which  one  sees  in  almost  all  the  hamlets  and  villages 
in  the  other  parishes. 

La  Tour  has  been  the  scene  of  many  calamities.  In  the 
year  1560,  the  Count  de  la  Trinite  gave  it  up  to  indiscrimi- 
nate slaughter.  In  1593,  the  Spanish  mercenaries,  in  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  laid  the  greater  part  of  it  in 
ashes,  and  pillaged  the  miserable  inhabitants  in  the  most 
brutal  manner.  ^^  But  all  this  was  nothing  in  comparison 
with  the  horrible  scenes  which  occurred  there  in  the  year 
1655,  under  the  orders  of  the  atrocious  Pianezza  —  of  which 
we  shall  speak  in  another  place. 

There  are  many  chestnut  trees  and  walnut  trees  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  valley  of  Luserne ;  but  they  become  far 
more  numerous,  as  one  ascends. 

After  passing  several  villages  and  hamlets,  we  come  next 
to  Villar  —  the  chief  town  in  the  parish  of  the  same  name. 
This  parish  contains  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty-nine 
Protestants,  and  three  hundred  and  ninety-five  Roman  Cath- 
olics. Here,  the  Valley  has  become  greatly  contracted,  and 
the  bottom  land  along  the  Pelice  is  narrow,  not  much  ex- 


31  According  to  Gilles,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  historians  of  the  Waldenses, 
'  they  shamefully  stripped  noble  ladies  who  were  there,  and  even  cut  ofl'the  fingers  of 
some  of  them  who  could  not  readily  pull  off'  iheir  gold  rings.'  In  former  times,  we 
may  remark,  the  Waldenses  could  boast  of  not  a  few  noble  families. 


310  THE    WALDENSES. 

ceeding  a  third  part  of  a  mile  in  width.  It  is  well  cultivated, 
as  are  also  such  portions  of  the  sides  of  the  mountains  as  are 
susceptible  of  it,  up  to  a  considerable  height.  The  village  of 
Villar  has  an  old  and  grotesque  appearance.  The  houses 
are  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  and  many  of  them  are  clearly 
in  a  condition  of  inchoate  dilapidation.  There  are  two 
churches,  one  for  Protestants,  the  other  for  Roman  Catholics. 
The  inconsiderate  destruction  of  a  Convent  of  the  Roman- 
ists, through  the  instigation  of  a  traitor,  hired  by  the  Propa- 
ganda, in  the  year  1653,  was  one  of  the  causes  which  led  to 
the  dreadful  war  that  happened  two  years  later.  And  yet  it 
is  not  wonderful  that  the  Protestants  burned  that  convent, 
for  they  had  indubitable  evidence  that  the  monks  were  mak- 
ing a  mine  from  beneath  it  to  the  Protestant  church,  for  the 
purpose  of  blowing  up  the  'heretics'  whilst  engaged  in 
public  worship. 

Continuing  our  way  westward  up  through  the  villages  of 
Vignes,  Cassarots,  Gamier,  and  Planter,  'AH,'  says  one  of 
the  Waldensian  historians,  ^^  '  baptized  with  blood,  and  wit- 
nesses of  heroic  combats,'  we  enter,  upon  crossing  the  torrent 
and  bridge  of  the  Subiasque,  the  parish  of  Bobi,  which  is 
the  uppermost  in  the  valley  of  Luserne.  Here  the  scene 
changes  from  the  beautiful  into  that  of  the  sublime,  and  even 
into  the  awful.  The  level  alluvial  land  in  the  bottom  of  the 
valley  expands  about  Bobi  into  the  shape  of  a  basin,  but  soon 
contracts  above  it  into  a  narrow  strip,  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
in  width,  and  finally  disappears  altogether.  Thence  up  to  the 
Col  de  la  Croix,  the  ridge  which  forms  the  French  boundary, 
there  is  nothing  but  deep,  and  even  apparently  unfathomable 
ravines,  in  which  lie  the  channels  of  the  head  stream  of  the 
Pelice  and  its  highest  confluents,  overhung  by  stupendous 
masses  of  rocks.     There  is  not  in  all  the  Alps  any  scenery 

32  Muston,  Hist.  p.  55. 


THE    VALLEY    OF    LUSERNE.  311 

which  is  more  grand  and  imposing.  Nor  are  these  ravines 
without  inhabitants.  Little  hamlets  are  to  be  found  at  vari- 
ous points,  in  all  directions,  wherever  it  is  possible  to  find  a 
spot  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  in  the  shape  of  basin  or 
terrace,  or  little  hollow,  that  is  susceptible  of  cultivation. 
Indeed,  in  some  cases  there  are  hamlets  where  there  is  no 
ground  which  can  be  cultivated,  save  a  little  patch  for  a 
garden.  In  these  cases  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  occupied 
in  cutting  timber  in  the  winter,  and  dragging  it  down  to 
Bobi ;  in  the  summer  they  look  after  the  herds  of  cattle,  and 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  which  are  driven  up  to  the  pasture 
on  the  alps,  or  grassy  spots,  on  the  sides  and  lowest  summits 
of  the  mountains. 

The  village  of  Bobi,  almost  hidden  in  a  grove  of  walnut 
and  chestnut  trees,  is  bounded  on  two  sides  by  the  projecting 
rocks  of  the  mountain.  On  the  side  next  to  the  Pelice  it 
was  formerly  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  washed  away 
when  that  stream  becomes  swollen  by  the  freshets,  which  in 
the  spring  and  autumn,  but  especially  the  former,  come  rush- 
ing down  from  the  mountain-defiles.  In  those  times  the 
destruction  of  property,  from  this  cause,  was  occasionally 
immense.  But  a  strong  and  long  dyke,  or  breakwater,  was 
erected,  chiefly  by  contributions  made  in  England,  ^  after  the 
fatal  inundation  of  1740. 

In  this  elevated  and  wonderful  region  occurred  many  of 
those  astonishing  events  in  Waldensian  history  which  give  it 
so  much  the  air  of  romance.  In  the  rear  of  Bobi,  and  con- 
siderably up  the  side  of  the  mountain,  stands  the  hamlet  of 
Sibaud,  which  takes  its  name  from  a  Count  de  Sibaud,  a 


33  The  sum  sent  from  England  on  that  occasion  was  forty-two  thousand  three 
hundred  and  eighty-three  francs,  or  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  pounds  ster- 
ling, according  to  the  value  of  money  and  rate  of  exchange  at  that  time.  This 
money  was  expended  in  making  a  breakwater,  which  still  remains,  and  in  assist- 
ing those  who  had  suflered  by  the  flood. — Gilly's  Waldensian  Researches,  p.  350. 


312  THE    WALDENSES. 

Savoyard  officer,  who  was  driven  from  a  fortress  which  stood 
on  a  projecting  cliff  at  this  place,  by  a  band  of  Waldensian 
soldiers  in  the  year  1689,  under  Henri  Arnaud.  Sword  in 
hand,  he  led  his  men  by  a  winding  way,  amid  trees  and  crags, 
till  he  got  above  the  fort,  and  then  carrying  it  by  assault,  he 
compelled  the  Savoyards  to  precipitate  themselves  headlong 
down  the  steep  sides  of  the  rocky  citadel,  on  to  the  trees  and 
masses  of  stone  below.     It  was  a  scene  of  dreadful  carnage. 

The  parish  of  Bobi  contains  at  present  one  thousand  five 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  Protestants.  The  number  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  is  seventy-six,  and  would  be  less  than  it  is  if  it 
were  not  for  the  carabiniers  and  custom-house  officers  who 
are  stationed  here,  on  account  of  the  road  which  leads  into 
France,  from  this  valley,  over  the  Col  de  la  Croix.  The 
Protestant  church  is  of  considerable  size ;  that  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  is  small. 

In  this  parish,  high  up  the  chief  source  of  the  Pelice,  stood 
in  former  times,  the  celebrated  Fort  Mirabouc,  the  ruins  of 
which  still  remain.  It  occupied  the  summit  of  a  huge  insu- 
lated rock,  three  hundred  feet  high,  and  almost  inaccessible. 
Its  position  could  enable  a  handful  of  men  to  defend  the 
country  against  invasion  from  France  by  this  route,  for  the 
ravine  in  which  it  stood  is  deep,  and  there  is  barely  a  foot- 
path along  the  edge  of  the  foaming  torrent  which  rushes 
down  from  the  region  above.  During  the  first  Revolution  in 
France,  a  company  of  soldiers  from  that  country,  headed  by 
an  officer,  passed  over  the  Col  de  la  Croix,  and  descending 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Pelice,  took  Fort  Mirabouc  without 
striking  a  blow.  French  gold  effected  on  that  occasion  what 
French  arms  could  not  have  done  had  the  garrison  and  its 
commander  done  their  duty.  "With  this  base  transaction  was 
connected  one  of  the  most  horrible  of  the  many  plots  which 
the  enemies  of  the  Waldenses  have  ever  laid  for  their  de- 


VALLEY    OF    RORA.  313 

struction.  The  facts  we  shall  state  in  our  notices  of  the 
history  of  that  wonderful,  that  heaven-protected  people. 

In  the  upper  part  of  this  parish,  also,  is  the  famous  local- 
ity, named  La  Sarcena,  where  the  persecution  which  the 
Waldenses  endured  in  the  year  1655,  and  which  has  been  so^ 
graphically  described  by  Leger,  was  marked  by  cruelties  of 
the  most  horrible  nature.^ 

But  let  us  turn  to  a  more  pleasing  theme.  Just  opposite 
to  Bobi,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Felice,  and  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  meadows  which  lie  on  that  side  of  the  river,  stands  the 
little  village  of  Laiis,  on  a  gently  sloping  hill,  which  is  cov- 
ered, in  the  summer,  with  cytisus  and  blossoming  broom. 
This  village  is  remarkable  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate, 
and  the  longevity  of  its  inhabitants.  Some  fifteen  years  ago, 
two  matrons  died  there  in  the  course  of  the  same  week,  one  at 
the  age  of  ninety -three,  and  the  other  at  one  hundred  and 
four. 

III.      The  Valley  of  Rora. 

The  valley  of  Rora  incloses  the  little  stream  called  Lu- 
sernette,  which  falls  into  the  Pelice  below  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic town  of  Luserne.  The  chief  village  in  this  valley  is 
Rora,  whence  it  derives  its  name.  It  is  usually  approached 
by  ascending  the  valley  from  Luserne.  But  the  task  is  not 
an  easy  one,  for  the  path  is  rough  and  narrow,  almost  from 
the  outset,  and  becomes  very  steep,  zigzag,  and  rocky  towards 
the  last. 

There  are  several  hamlets  in  this  elevated  valley,  which 
are  all  comprised  in  the  parish  of  Rora.  The  village  of 
Rora,  where  stands  the  Protestant  church,  is  an  inconsid- 
erable place.     The  entire  population  of  the  parish  is  seven 

34 '  Des  femmes  eventrees  et  convulsives  furent  laissees  agonissanles  sur  les 
neiges,  et  leurs  enfans  jeties  en  vie  par  les  rochers ! '  Quoted  by  Muston,  in  his 
Histoire  des  Vaudois,  liv.  i.  p.  62. 

27 


3X4  THE    WALDENSES. 

hundred  and  twenty-five,  of  whom  forty-one  are  Roman 
Catholics,  who  have  a  small  church  of  their  own. 

Few  portions  of  the  valleys  contain  a  greater  amount  of 
scenery,  picturesque,  beautiful,  and  bold,  than  the  commune 
of  Rora.  Poor  as  is  its  soil,  and  elevated  and  bleak  as  are 
the  rocky  barriers  of  its  upper  section,  it  is  said  that  a 
smaller  number  of  its  inhabitants  go  into  France,  and  other 
distant  parts,  in  quest  of  employment,  than  from  almost  any 
other  parish  in  all  the  country  of  the  Waldenses. 

But  Rora  is  not  without  its  history.  Even  here,  in  this 
secluded  valley,  marvellous  things  have  occurred,  one  of 
which  was  the  famous  resistance  which  was  made  in  the  year 
1655,  by  Captain  Janavel,  a  native  of  that  village,  with  a 
handful  of  men  —  for  the  population  of  Rora  consisted,  at  that 
epoch,  of  only  twenty-five  families  —  to  an  army  of  ten  thou- 
sand men,  sent  by  the  Marquis  of  Pianessa,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Count  Christovel,  to  destroy  their  houses  and  cut 
down  their  trees,  as  a  punishment  for  not  having  obeyed  his 
summons  to  attend  mass  within  the  space  of  twenty-four 
hours.  '  We  prefer  death  a  thousand  times  to  the  mass, 
since  you  have  never  been  able  to  show  that  Jesus  Christ 
and  his  apostles  celebrated  it.  If,  after  burning  our  houses, 
you  should  cut  down  our  trees,  our  Heavenly  Father  will  be 
our  good  provider.'  Such  was  the  reply  which  these  poor 
people  made.  Nor  were  their  enemies  long  in  making  their 
appearance.  But  Janavel  defeated  them  in  many  battled, 
and  maintained  a  successful  resistance,  until  he  was  compelled 
to  retreat  for  want  of  ammunition.  He  then  retired  over 
mountains  covered  with  snow,  into  Val  Queyras,  in  France, 
where  he  found  both  supplies  of  men  and  provisions.  He 
was  afterwards  joined  by  the  brave  Jahier,  a  man  equally 
renowned  in  Waldensian  annals,  in  the  valley  of  Angrogna, 
and  proceeded  to  St.  Secundo,  which  he  stormed  and  cap- 
tured, though  defended  by  ten  times  as  many  Piedmontese 


VALLEY    OF   PEROUSE.  315 

and  Irish  troops  as  he  and  Jahier  commanded.  But  Rora 
suffered  much  during  that  war,  for  the  armies  of  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  marched  twice  over  the  dead  bodies  of  its  brave  de- 
fenders and  pillaged  the  ill-fated  village,  after  having  violated 
the  women,  and  massacred  its  inhabitants,  of  every  sex  and 
age. 

And  yet,  when  the  French  overran  and  conquered  Pied- 
mont, in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Victor 
Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  took  refuge  in  Rora,  a  place 
which  had  suffered  more  injuries  from  him  and  his  ancestors 
than  any  other  portion  of  the  valleys.  What  a  remarkable 
providence,  that  compelled  the  wolf  to  seek  a  home  and  pro- 
tection with  the  lamb !  But  \he  inhabitants  of  that  valley 
acted  in  a  manner  worthy  of  their  Christian  principles. 
They  formed  a  life-guard,  and  nobly  protected  their  fallen 
monarch,  until  Prince  Eugene  arrived  with  an  army  near 
Turin.  Amadeus  then  left  Rora  to  concert  measures,  on  the 
top  of  the  Superga,  with  that  great  commander,  for  the  relief 
of  his  besieged  capital.  Upon  quitting  his  place  of  retreat, 
he  gave  his  silver  goblet,  or  drinking-cup,  to  the  family  to 
whose  kindness  and  hospitality  he  had  been  most  indebted, 
and  confirmed  to  them  the  privilege  of  using  their  garden  as 
a  burial-ground.  From  father  to  son,  that  silver  cup  de- 
scended as  an  heir-loom  in  that  family,  who  cherished  it  as  a 
memorial  of  the  fidelity  of  their  excellent  ancestor  to  his 
fallen  prince.^ 

IV.      The  Valley  of  Perouse, 

Having  spoken  of  the  most  southern  portion  of  the  Wal- 
densian  territory,  we  will  next  turn  our  attention  to  the  most 


35  We  are  sorry  to  add,  thai  Durand-Canlon,  the  last  possessor  of  this  cup,  was 
compelled  by  poverty,  some  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  ago,  to  pawn  it  at  Pi^nerol 
for  the  paltry  sum  of  twelve  francs,  or  two  dollars  and  a  quarter  of  our  money. 
As  he  was  not  able  to  redeem  it  within  the  time  allowed,  he  lost  it  forever. 


316  THE    WALDENSES. 

northern,  leaving  the  valley  of  Angrogna,  which  may  be  said 
to  be  the  most  central,  as  well  as  the  most  famous  of  all  these 
valleys,  to  be  described  last. 

The  valley  through  which  the  river  Clusone  runs,  is  di- 
vided into  three  sections,  the  lowest  of  which  is  called  the 
valley  of  Clusone ;  the  middle,  the  valley  of  Perouse ;  and 
the  upper,  the  valley  of  Pragela.  The  first  and  last  named, 
form  no  part  of  the  Waldensian  territory  at  present.  Nor 
does  the  portion  of  the  middle,  which  lies  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Clusone,  and  which  is  by  far  the  more  extensive  and 
fertile.     The  Waldenses  have  lost  this  also. 

We  have,  then,  to  confine  our  remarks  to  the  country 
which  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  from  the  most 
eastern  boundary  of  the  country  of  the  Waldenses  up  to  the 
Germanesca,  where  we  shall  quit  the  valley  of  Perouse,  to 
enter  that  of  St.  Martin. 

The  lowest  Waldensian  parish  in  the  valley  of  Perouse,  is 
that  of  Prarustin,  which  is  ojDposite  to  that  of  St.  Jean.  And 
next  to  that  parish,  it  is  the  most  productive  portion  of  all 
these  valleys.  It  abounds  in  vines,  fruit-trees,  wheat,  maize 
or  Indian  corn,  and  rye.  The  country  slopes  down  from  the 
mountain,  which  bounds  it  on  the  south,  to  the  river  Clusone. 
A  large  portion  of  this  parish  is  undulating ;  whilst  a  part 
of  it  consists  of  the  mountain-side. 

There  are  two  Protestant  churches  in  this  parish;  the 
larger  at  St.  Barthelemi,  and  the  other  at  Eochplate,  about 
two  miles  to  the  west.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  church  at 
St.  Barthelemi.  This  parish  contains  two  thousand  four 
hundred  and  seven  Protestants,  and  sixty  Roman  Catholics.^^ 

The  next  parish,  as  one  ascends  the  Clusone,  is  that  of  St. 
Germain,  which  takes  its  name  from  its  chief  village,  a  very 


36  There  is  also  a  Catholic  church  and  convent  at  the  village  of  Turin,  about  mid- 
way between  St.  Barthelemi  and  St.  Germain. 


VALLEY    OF   PEROUSE.  317 

pleasant  one,  that  stands  in  a  cove  of  considerable  extent. 
A  turn  of  the  river,  to  the  eastward,  forms  quite  an  extensive 
plain,  in  the  midst  of  which  stands  St.  Germain.  But  nine 
tenths  of  this  parish  lie  on  the  mountain-side,  where  one  sees, 
here  and  there,  hamlets  occupying  points  of  various  elevation, 
amid  patches  of  cultivated  land. 

The  village  of  St.  Germain  consists  mainly  of  one  street, 
and  possesses  some  houses  that  are  much  better  in  structure 
and  appearance  than  those  which  one  sees  in  most  of  even 
the  larger  villages  in  these  valleys.  It,  too,  has  its  history. 
Not  a  few  remarkable  scenes  occurred  here  during  those 
centuries,  first  of  petty  or  insulated  persecution,  and  after- 
wards of  war,  through  which  the  Waldenses  were  called  to 
pass.^ 

Above  the  parish  of  St.  Germain,  and  between  it  and  the 
valley  of  St.  Martin,  lies  the  parish  of  Pramol,  which  is 
almost  wholly  mountainous,  there  being  scarcely  any  level 
land  in  it.  The  chief  village  of  this  parish  is  that  from 
which  it  derives  its  name.  It  stands  at  the  distance  of  about 
four  miles  from  St.  Germain,  and  the  ascent  to  it  is,  through 
the  greater  part  of  the  way,  by  a  steep  zigzag  path,  amid 
rocks  and  loose  stones,  and  is  extremely  difficult.  Many  small 
hamlets  are  seen  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  at  intervals, 
throughout  this  parish.  The  Protestants  are  one  thousand 
three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  in  number,  and  have  a 
church, —  a  new  one,  built  in  the  summer  of  1844 — at  the 
village  of  Pramol ;  the  Roman  Catholics  are  one  hundred 
and  fifty,  and  have  a  small  church  at  a  considerable  distance 
lower  down  the  valley. 


37  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  events  alluded  to  above,  was  the  carrying 
off,  on  one  occasion,  by  a  combination  of  stratagem  and  force,  a  most  w^orlhy  pastor  of 
this  village  ;  his  imprisonment  at  Pignerol,  the  fruitless  efforts  made  by  the  monks  to 
convert  him  to  Romanism,  and  his  cruel  death  at  the  stake  —  a  death  which  he  bore 
with  a  fortitude  and  a  triumph  worthy  of  the  first  Christian  martyrs. 

27* 


318  THE    WALDENSES. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Ckisone,  at  the  base  of  a  lofty 
and  bleak  mountain-ridge,  abounding  in  granite,  of  wliich 
there  is  a  remarkable  quarry  in  front  of  St.  Germain,  runs 
an  admirable  road,  which  was  made  by  that  imperial  road- 
maker,  Napoleon.  This  highway  commences  at  Pignerol, 
and,  pursuing  a  northwesterly  course,  it  passes  the  considera- 
ble village  of  Perouse,  which  stands  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
valley  which  bears  the  same  name.  Thence  its  course  is  up 
the  valley  of  Pragela,  in  which  it  passes  the  celebrated  for- 
tress of  Fenestrelle,  that  defends  the  Piedmontese  territory, 
on  that  part  of  its  frontier.  From  the  upper  end  of  the  val- 
ley of  Pragela,  it  crosses  Mont  Genevre  into  France,  and 
descends  the  valley  of  the  Durance  by  the  cities  of  Brian gon, 
Embrun,  etc. 

By  the  same  valley,  it  is  generally  believed,  Julius  Coesar 
entered  Gaul ;  and  by  many  it  is  supposed  that  Annibal  in- 
vaded Italy.  And  as  this  route  was  the  most  direct  from 
Rome  to  Lyons,  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  Irenosus,  and 
other  Christian  missionaries  in  early  times,  traversed  these 
regions,  and  were  the  first  to  introduce  the  gospel  among  its 
inhabitants.^ 

V.      Valley  of  St.  Martin. 

Opposite  to  the  Roman  Catholic  town  of  Perouse,  the 
Germanesca,  which  flows  through  the  valley  of  St.  Martin, 
falls  into  the  Clusone.  A  rude  wooden  bridge,  resting  on 
piles  of  stone,  leads  from  Perouse  over  to  Pomaret,  which 
stands  between  the  two  rivers  just  named.  The  site  is 
beautiful. 

This  village  is  the  most  important  one  in  the  parish  to 
which  it  gives  name.     It  is  called  Pomaret,  because  it  stands 


38  Ammiarius  Marcellinus  describes  this  route  as  '  media,  compendia  magisque 
Celebris.'     Gilly's  Researches,  pp.  55-61. 


VALLEY    OF    ST.    MARTIN.  319 

in  the  midst  of  orchards.  In  the  rear  of  it,  to  the  northwest, 
lie  the  mountains  which  separate  the  valley  of  St.  Martin  from 
that  of  Pragela.  In  front,  and  across  the  German esca,  rises 
the  high,  wooded  mountain  region,  beyond  which  Pramol  is 
situated.  Whilst  up  the  valley  of  St.  Martin,  to  the  west, 
the  Alps,  in  range  above  range,  raise  their  lofty  heads,  as 
they  retire  in  the  distance. 

On  both  sides  of  the  Germanesca,  and  for  the  most  part  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountains,  stand  several  hamlets  which  are 
included  in  this  parish.  The  Protestants,  who  are  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  fifteen  in  number,  have  a  church  at 
Pomaret  which  will  contain  one  thousand  persons.  It  is  a 
good,  substantial,  and  neat-looking  building.  Its  erection  took 
place  in  the  year  18^.  It  cost  the  sum  of  sixteen  thousand 
francs,  of  which  the  Emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  gave  a 
considerable  portion.  The  Roman  Catholic  population  is  two 
hundred  and  twenty-two  in  number,  and  has  also  a  church 
and  a  curate.  There  is  at  Pomaret  a  grammar-school ;  also  a 
small  hospital,  or  dispensary,  which  will  accommodate  some 
ten  or  fifteen  sick  people.  This  village  was  the  scene  of  the 
pastoral  labors  of  the  late  Rev.  J.  Rodolphe  Peyrani,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  Waldensian  clergy  in  modern 
times.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  of  him  in  another 
place. 

At  the  distance  of  a  mile  or  two  above  Pomaret,  the 
Germanesca  passes  through  a  narrow  mountain  defile,  which  is 
barely  wide  enough  to  allow  the  river,  which  here  has  the  force 
of  a  vast  torrent,  to  rush  through.  Stupendous  rocks  are  piled 
up  on  each  side  of  the  stream,  and  form  a  scene  of  surpass- 
ing grandeur.  We  know  not  where  w^e  have  seen  any  thing  of 
the  sort,  which  can  be  compared  with  it.  It  is  the  gateway  to 
the  valley  of  St.  Martin.  The  road  passes  over  a  stone  bridge, 
from  the  left  to  the  right  bank,  a  short  distance  below  this 
wonderful  defile,  which  seems  to  have  been  cleft  by  the  hand 


320  THE    WALDENSES. 

of  God,  to  form  an  outlet  for  the  waters  of  the  river.  As  a 
space  barely  wide  enough  for  the  road  has  been  hewn  out  of 
the  solid  rock,  nothing  could  be  easier  than  to  block  it  up,  and 
eifectually  prevent  the  entrance  of  a  hostile  force  —  a  meas- 
ure which  the  Waldenses  were  often  compelled  to  adopt. 

The  scenery  in  the  valley  of  St.  Martin,  frequently  and 
rapidly  changes,  from  the  most  wild,  rugged,  and  striking 
aspect,  to  the  most  attractive  beauty.  Throughout  its  entire 
length,  there  is  very  little  bottom,  or  alluvial  land.  Wherever 
there  is  a  spot  that  is  susceptible  of  cultivation,  whether  it 
consist  of  several  acres,  or  is  a  mere  nook,  there  the  hand  of 
man  is  at  work  to  turn  it  to  a  proper  account.  Vast  moun- 
tains, of  various  elevation,  bound  the  valley  on  both  sides, 
and  give  it  a  most  picturesque  appearance. 

The  first  parish  above  Pomaret,  is  that  of  Ville  Seche,  so 
called  from  its  chief  village,  which  occupies  an  acclivity  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Germanesca.  To  ascend  to  it  requires 
no  little  eifort,  for  the  path  is  steep  and  rough.  There  are 
eight  or  ten  hamlets  in  this  parish,  whose  whole  population 
is  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-six  souls,  of  whom 
one  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-six  are  Protestants, 
and  eight  hundred  Roman  Catholics.  There  is  a  Protestant 
church  at  Ville  Seche.  It  was  in  this  parish  that  Leger,  the 
historian  of  his  country,  was  born. 

In  this  parish  the  vine  is  but  little  cultivated ;  wheat,  rye, 
and  potatoes  are  the  chief  agricultural  productions. 

In  the  year  1560,  the  hamlet  of  Rioclaret,  on  the  south 
side  of  this  parish,  was  greatly  harassed  by  its  feudal  lords, 
Charles  and  Boniface  de  Truchet,  who  were  bitter  enemies 
of  the  Waldenses,  and  displayed  their  hatred  both  in  secret 
machinations  and  open  violence.  Having  interrupted  the 
public  service  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  the  pastor  by  force, 
they  were  repelled  by  the  indignant,  but  unarmed  people. 
Overwhelmed  with  shame  by  their  defeat,  Charles  Truchet 


VALLEY    OF    ST.    MARTIN.  321 

raised  a  large  band  of  soldiers  and  attacked  the  poor  villa- 
gers, drove  them  into  the  highest  and  coldest  portions  of  the 
mountains,  and  destroyed  everything  before  him.  During 
this  incursion,  the  pastor  of  the  village  of  St.  Martin  was 
taken  prisoner,  carried  to  Pignerol,  and  burnecl  by  the 
monks.  This  aroused  their  brethren  in  the  valley  of  Clu- 
sone,  who,  headed  by  their  pastor,  the  harhe  Martin,  ^^ 
marched,  to  the  number  of  four  hundred,  to  their  relief.  A 
deadly  conflict  ensued  near  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  where 
Truchet  had  posted  his  men.  But  some  of  the  Waldensian 
slingers  having  gained  the  top,  attacked  the  enemy  in  the 
rear,  whilst  the  main  bod^^  engaged  them  in  front.  In  the 
end  Truchet  and  his  six  hundred  soldiers  were  routed,  and 
many  of  them  were  slain  in  the  retreat,  because  of  the  depth 
of  snow  which  greatly  hindered  their  flight.  As  for  Truchet, 
after  having  been  twice  wounded,  and  abandoned  by  his  men, 
he  was  finally  despatched  with  his  own  sword  by  a  peasant.  *^ 
Ascending  the  valley  still  higher,  the  scene  becomes  more 
savage.  The  bottom  of  the  valley  becomes  very  narrow,  and 
the  sides  consist  of  alternate  projections  of  masses  of  naked 
rocks  and  deep  intervening  wooded  ravines  and  coves. 
Everything  announces  that  this  region  belongs  to  the  High 
Alps.  Masses  of  snow  are  seen  in  midsummer,  in  the 
ravines  which  are  high  up  towards  the  summits  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  have  a  northern  exposure.  We  need  not  wonder, 
therefore,  that  the  next  parish,  that  of  Maneille,  which 
includes  several  hamlets,  besides  the  village  of  that  name, 
situated  like  Villa  Seche  on  a  mountain-slope,  contains  no 
more  than  five  hundred  and  seven  souls,  of  whom  two  hun- 
dred and  nine  are  Roman  Catholics.  There  are  churches  of 
both  communions  in  this  parish. 

39  The  Waldenses  call  their  pastors  barbes,  which"  signifies  uncle;  whence  they 
themselves  are  called  barbels,  by  their  enemies. 

40  Gilly's  Excursions,  Appendix  VII. 


322  THE    WALDENSES. 

Nearly  opposite  to  Maneille,  is  the  Rocca  Bianca,  or 
White  Rock,  a  mountain  so  named  from  its  fine  white 
marble,  conspicuous  from  afar.  This  region  abounds  in 
excellent  white  marble,  equal,  as  is  believed,  to  that  of  Car- 
rara, but  the  transportation  is  so  difficult  that  there  is  little 
prospect  that  it  will  be  much  wrought.  Within  a  few  years, 
however,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  render  these  treas- 
ures available.  In  the  same  neighborhood  there  is  a  quarry 
of  talc,  or  pierre  douce^  *^  which  has  been  worked  to  some 
extent. 

Pursuing  a  northwest  course,  and  ascending  still  higher 
the  deep  and  gloomy  valley,  through  which  a  mountain  tor- 
rent comes  pitching  down,  we  arrive  at  the  parish  of  Macel, 
so  called  from  the  principal  village  in  it,  which  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  stream.  The  valley,  long  before  one  arrives 
at  this '  point,  becomes  exceedingly  picturesque.  In  several 
places,  rocks  surmounted  with  larches  and  pines,  rise  perpen- 
dicularly, in  awful  grandeur,  from  almost  the  very  edge  of 
the  water,  so  that  it  would  seem  impossible  to  make  a  road 
between  them  and  the  river. 

In  this  region,  little  is  done  in  the  way  of  agriculture 
beyond  the  raising  of  potatoes,  wherever  there  is  a  spot  that 
can  be  cultivated.  And  yet  this  parish,  which  until  lately 
was  annexed  to  that  of  Maneille,  has  a  population  of  one 
thousand  and  thirty-eight  souls,  of  whom  seven  hundred  and 
ninety-two  are  Protestants,  and  two  hundred  and  forty-six 
are  Roman  Catholics. 

In  the  upper  part  of  this  parish,  and  just  beneath  the 
Col-du-Pis  and  Mont  Guignevert,  is  the  hamlet  of  Basille, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  torrent,  —  for  it  deserves  not  the  name 
of  river  at  that  point  —  which  is  opposite  the  famous  high, 

41  So  called  from  ils  oily  feel  and  friable  consislence,  out  of  which  the  inhabitants 
form  excellent  kitchen  utensils.     Waldenses  Illustrated^  by  Dr.  Beattie,  p.  78. 


VALLEY    OF    ST.    MARTIN.  323 

cone-shaped  mass  of  rocks,  called  Balsi.  Occupying  this 
natural  fortress,  a  few  hundred  Waldensian  soldiers,  under 
the  command  of  Henri  Arnaud,  in  the  winter  of  1689,  90, 
long  defended  themselves  against  twenty-two  thousand 
French  and  Savoyard  troops,  and  then,  when  defence  was  no 
longer  possible,  retreated  to  the  mountain  in  the  rear  of  it, 
with  scarcely  the  loss  of  a  man.  This  spot  has  well  been 
denominated  the  '  Thermopylae  of  the  Valleys.' 

The  parishes  of  Maneille  and  Macel,  as  the  reader  will 
perceive  by  referring-  to  the  map,  lie  in  the  valley  of  one  of 
the  two  considerable  streams  which  unite  above  Perrero,  and 
form  the  Germanesca.  The  other  branch  —  which  bears  the 
name  of  the  river  below  —  comes  down  from  the  southwest. 
If  we  ascend  that  stream,  we  shall  be  struck  with  the 
increased  wildness  and  barrenness  of  the  country.  The  side 
of  the  mountain  which  bounds  the  river  on  the  right  bank 
has  a  considerable  growth  of  timber  in  its  ravines,  and  near 
its  base.  But  that  on  the  left  bank  is  composed,  for  the  most 
part,  of  naked  rocks.  There  is  scarcely  any  bottom  land 
throughout  its  entire  course.  And  what  there  is,  is  covered 
in  many  places,  with  masses  of  rocks  which  have  detached 
themselves  from  the  mountain-sides,  and  rolled,  with  a  tre- 
mendous crash,  into  the  valley  below.  In  some  cases  the 
river  is  almost  blocked  up  with  them.  At  first  sight,  a 
stranger  would  come  to  the  conclusion  that  no  human  being 
would  ever  think  of  taking  up  his  abode  in  a  region,  abound- 
ing indeed  in  sublime  and  imposing  scenery,  but  withal  so 
wild  and  dreary,  that  it  would  be  pronounced  uninhabitable. 
And  most  certainly  nothing  short  of  dire  necessity,  we  may 
conclude,  could  make  any  one  take  up  his  residence  in  such  a 
region. 

The  first  parish  on  the  upper  Germanesca  is  that  of 
Rodoret,  which  takes  its  name  from  a  village  that  stands 
some  two  miles  to  the  left  of  the  river,  and  on  a  small  con- 


324  THE    WALDENSES. 

fluent.  It  contains  six  hundred  and  eighty  inhabitants,  of 
whom  five  hundred  and  thirty  are  Protestants,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  are  Roman  Catholics.  Both  communions 
have  churches.  This  parish  was,  until  within  three  or  four 
years,  annexed  to  that  of  Prali.  But  it  was  almost  impossi- 
ble for  the  pastor  of  the  united  churches  to  get  from  one  to 
the  other  during  the  winter,  which  always  lasts  eight  months, 
and  sometimes  nine,  in  this  high  region. 

The  parish  of  Prali  includes  the  highest  portion  of  the 
valley  of  the  Germanesca,  or  of  St.  Martin,  as  it  is  usually 
called.  The  entire  population  of  this  parish  is  eight  hundred 
and  four  souls,  of  whom  seven  hundred  and  ninety-three  are 
Waldenses,  or  Protestants,  and  eleven  are  Roman  Catholics, 
who  are  mostly  connected  with  the  custom-house  service,  as 
there  is  a  route  leading  into  France  from  the  upper  part  of 
this  valley.  Their  little  church  is  at  the  village  of  Prali. 
The  Protestant  church  is  two  miles  higher  up,  at  a  village 
called  Guigot. 

This  is  decidedly  the  wildest  and  most  barren  of  all  the 
parishes  of  the  Waldenses.  The  pines  that  grow  on  the 
sides  of  the  mountains,  which  hem  in  the  valley,  are  few, 
scattered,  and  very  dwarfish.  On  the  south,  the  valley  is 
completely  shut  in  by  the  lofty  range  forming  the  Col  de 
Julien,  ^  whose  elevated  peaks  and  crags,  and  highest  sides 
are  covered,  even  in  July,  with  snow.  Not  unfrequently  the 
whole  parish  is  covered  with  snow  during  eight  or  nine 
months  of  the  year.  The  harvests  are  very  uncertain,  and 
the  crops,  at  best,  very  scanty.  Rye,  potatoes,  and  maize, 
are  the  chief  productions  of  the  fields,  or  rather  of  the  spots 
and  patches  which  are  cultivated  amid  the  rocks.  No  fruit- 
trees,  and  but  few  walnuts  and  chesnuts  are  seen  in  this 


42  Dr.  Gilly  thiiiks  it  not  improbable  that  this  mountain  received  its  name  from 
Julius  Ccesar, 


VALLEY    OF    ST.    MARTIN.  325 

elevated  region.  And  avalanches  are  frequent,  and  often 
very  destructive. 

Among  the  heights  south  of  Prali,  are  twelve  little  lakes  or 
ponds,  which  are  formed  by  the  melting  of  the  snows  on  the 
Col  de  Julien.  They  are  nearly  on  the  route  from  Prali 
over  to  Bobi,  in  the  valley  of  Luserne. 

The  name  of  Prali,  like  those  of  Rodoret,  Perrero,  Basille, 
Ville  Seche,  and  Pomaret,  is  intimately  blended  with  the 
history  of  these  valleys.  It  was  here  that  Henri  Arnaud, 
with  his  men,  first  halted,  upon  their  return  to  their  native 
land,  in  the  year  1689.  They  spent  their  first  Sabbath  in 
the  church  at  Guigot. '*^  It  was  an  affecting  scene.  The 
church  had  been  converted  into  a  Roman  Catholic  one  during 
the  three  years  in  which  the  Waldenses  were  in  exile.  But 
soon  all  the  memorials  of  an  idolatrous  worship  were  turned 
out  of  the  sacred  edifice  —  altar,  pictures,  statues,  vase  of 
holy  water,  etc.  —  and  Arnaud,  the  warrior-pastor,  standing 
in  the  door,  preached  to  his  troops,  some  of  whom  were  in 
the  church,  and  the  others  outside.  There  they  lifted  up 
their  voices  in  praise  and  thanksgiving.  The  service  was 
commenced  by  singing  the  seventy-fourth  psalm,  so  admira- 
bly adapted  to  their  circumstances. 

This  entire  region  of  the  upper  Germanesca  is  but  too 
famous  for  the  dreadful  disasters  which  are  occasioned  by 
avalanches.  On  the  11th  of  March,  1832,  eighteen  men, 
natives  of  Prali,  set  out  from  Rodoret,  in  a  snow-storm,  to 
return  to  their  homes.  When  they  had  nearly  reached  the 
end  of  their  journey,  they  were  overtaken  by  a  tremendous 
avalanche,  and  thirteen  of  them  were  in  an  instant  over- 


43  A  Mr.  Leidet,  who  was  pastor  of  the  church  at  Guigot  sometime  previous  to 
the  events  referre-l  to  in  the  text,  was  detected  in  singing  a  psalm  beneath  a  roclf^ 
arrested,  carried  to  Luserne,  tried  as  a  heretic,  condemned  to  death,  and  beheaded. 
He  was  sustained  by  his  faith  to  the  last,  and  died  exclaiming:  '  Lilo  thy  hands,  O 
God,  I  commend  my  spirit.' 

28 


326 


THE    WALDENSES. 


whelmed  by  it.  One  was  extricated  before  life  became 
extinct ;  but  the  other  twelve  were  buried  so  deep  that  they 
could  not  be  excavated  for  three  days.  The  scene,  when 
their  bodies  were  carried  to  Prali,  beggars  all  attempt  at 
description.  The  little  village  was  long  clad  in  mourning. 
The  only  resource  which  the  bereaved  families  possessed, 
was  that  of  a  religion  which  had  caused  their  ancestors  so 
nobly  to  endure  a  great  '  fight  of  afilictions.' 

YI.      Valley  of  Angrogna. 

This  may  rightly  be  called  the  '  Holy  Valley '  of  the  Wal- 
denses.  To  this  central  and  most  easily  defended  of  all 
their  valleys,  they  were  often  compelled  to  fly  for  shelter. 
Here  was,  at  the  hamlet  of  Pra  del  Tor,  the  '  school  of  the 
prophets,'  where  their  young  men  pursued  such  studies  as  the 
Church  prescribed,  to  qualify  them  for  the  ministry.  It  was 
a  rude  theological  seminary,  it  is  true,  but  it  was  better  than 
could  be  found  any  where  else  in  the  world,  in  those  dark 
ages  ;  for  there  their  young  ministers  were  taught  the  '  truth 
as  it  is  in  Jesus.' 

This  valley  has  almost  no  bottom  land  ;  but  the  sides  of  the 
mountains,  which  bound  it,  furnish  a  good  number  of  spots, 
some  consisting  of  many  acres,  and  many  more  of  less  than 
one,  which  are  cultivated,  and  which  produce  good  crops  of 
wheat,  rye,  potatoes,  flax,  etc ;  whilst  on  the  sunny  exposures, 
the  vine  is  cultivated  to  some  extent.  When  last  in  that 
country,  we  went  up  its  whole  length,  and  were  exceedingly 
struck  with  its  wonderful  scenery.  In  many  places  there  is 
scarcely  room  for  a  narrow,  and  very  rough  path  to  pass 
along  between  the  mountain,  and  the  foaming,  roaring,  torrent- 
river  which  flows  through  it,  and  joins  the  Pelice  below  the 
village  of  La  Tour. 

This  valley  is  full  of  memorable  places,  to  which  we  shall 


VALLEY    OF   ANGROGNA.  327 

refer  again  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  history  of  this 
people. 

In  entering  this  valley,  which  one  does  almost  immediately 
upon  setting  out  from  La  Tour,  one  of  the  first  places  which 
interests  a  pious  heart  is  the  village  of  Chiabas,  where  stands 
the  deserted  and  now  dilapidated  church,  which  not  only  the 
people  of  the  lower  end  of  this  valley,  but  also  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  commune  of  St.  Jean  were,  for  ages,  forced  to 
attend.  Since  the  erection  of  the  church  in  the  village  of 
St.  Jean,  this  old  church  has  been  abandoned.  But  who  can 
visit  it  without  recalling  to  mind  what  scenes  there  took 
place  ?  Under  what  affecting  circumstances  the  gospel  was 
often  preached  within  those  old  and  sacred  walls  !  How  many 
must  have  been  the  exhortations  of  venerated  pastors  to  a 
faithful  adherence  to  the  gospel !  How  many  tears  must 
have  been  shed  here  over  slain  friends,  whose  faces  from 
time  to  time  were  missed,  and  who  had  fallen  in  persecution, 
or  in  war  waged  in  behalf  of  all  that  was  dear  to  their  hearts 
in  this  world !  This  church,  and  that  of  La  Tour,  were  pe- 
culiarly exposed  to  such  scenes,  for  they  were  the  places  of 
worship  for  the  two  lowland  parishes,  which  were  most  of  all 
exposed  to  the  incursions  of  the  enemy.  Surely  for  nearly 
five  hundred  years,  there  could  not  have  been  long  intervals, 
in  which  mournful  occurrences  of  persecution,  resulting  in 
protracted  imprisonment  or  death,  or  both,  did  not  take  place. 
We  cannot  but  hope,  that  this  old  temple  will  be  repaired, 
and  reopened  for  the  worship  of  God,  for  it  is  needed  for  the 
population  in  its  vicinity. 

The  only  parish  in  this  valley  is  called  the  parish  of  An- 
grogna,  which  contains  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  inhabitants,  of  whom  two  thousand  one  hundred 
and  twenty-four  are  Protestants,  and  six  hundred  and  thir- 
teen  are    Roman    Catholics.      The    Protestants    have    two 


328  THE    WALDENSES. 

churches,  one  in  the  hamlet  of  St.  Laurent,  the  other  higher 
up  the  valley  at  the  hamlet  of  Serre.  There  are  also  two 
Catholic  churches,  one  a  little  above  St.  Laurent,  the  other 
in  the  upper  end  of  the  valley. 

But  the  most  interesting  place  in  the  valley  is  the  beautiful 
grassy  spot,  called  Pra  del  Tor,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
at  the  distance  of  eight  miles  from  La  Tour,  where,  as  we 
have  said,  during  ages  before  the  Reformation,  the  Wal- 
denses  trained  their  young  men  for  the  ministry.  From  this 
sacred  but  rude  institution,  missionaries  were  sent  forth,  — 
to  Calabria  and  to  Apulia  in  Italy,  to  Bohemia  in  Germany, 
to  England,  —  who  scattered  the  seeds  which  ultimately,  in 
the  labors  of  Wickliffe,  John  Huss,  and  Jerome  of  Prague, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  glorious  Reformation.  It  was  at 
this  spot  that  the  Waldensian  Synod  often  met,  for  it  was  the 
Shiloh  of  the  valleys.  At  present,  however,  not  a  vestige 
remains  to  indicate  where  the  sacred  college  stood.  But  what 
is  wonderful,  there  is  a  small  Roman  Catholic  chapel  there, 
which  a  bishop  of  Pignerol  erected,  with  the  hope  that 
it  would  have  a  mighty  influence  to  convert  the  people.  But 
he  was  mistaken.  The  "VYaldenses  have  rather  regarded  it 
as  a  nuisance,  a  profanation  of  the  holiest  spot  in  all  their 
valleys. 

VII.      Concluding  Remarks. 

We  shall  bring  our  notices  of  the  physical  character  of 
these  valleys  to  a  close  with  a  few  general  remarks.  In 
another  chapter,  in  which  we  shall  speak  of  the  present 
moral  condition  of  that  community,  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
say  all  that  is  necessary  respecting  their  mode  of  living,  the 
nature  of  their  houses,  style  of  dress,  their  various  pursuits, 
state  of  education,  religion,  and  morals,  and  other  questions 
which  have  relation  to  that  subject.  In  the  present,  we 
have  endeavored  to  confine  ourselves  to  what  belongs  mainly 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  329 

to  the  geography  of  the  country,  including  its  population  and 
its  productions. 

From  what  we  have  stated,  the  reader  has  learned,  if  he 
did  not  know  before,  that  the  country  occupied  by  the  Wal- 
denses  is  a  very  small  one.  It  is,  in  fact,  not  larger  than 
most  of  the  counties  in  New  England,  and  some  other  por- 
tions of  our  country.  Twenty-two  miles  by  sixteen  is  cer- 
tainly its  whole  extent.^ 

In  the  second  place,  the  population  is  too  large  for  the 
nature  of  the  country.  This  is  a  great  evil.  Twenty-six 
thousand  inhabitants,  or  nearly  one  hundred  souls  to  the 
square  mile,  are  a  great  many  for  such  a  country.  Nor  is 
this  evil  likely  to  diminish.  There  is  no  probability  that  the 
Sardinian  government  will  soon  renounce  its  barbarous  and 
unwise  policy  of  hedging  up  these  people,  who  are  the  best 
of  its  subjects  in  every  pomt  of  view,  within  certain  limits,  as 
if  they  were  wild  beasts. 

It  is  true,  that  through  improvements  in  their  agricultural 
processes,  such  as  more  effectually  irrigating  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains  which  can  by  any  means  be  converted  into  culti- 
vatable  ground,  as  well  as  the  alluvial  bottom  lands  in  the 
valleys  below,  something  has  been  done  to  increase  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  this  little  country.  Something  more  in  the 
same  line  will  be  done,  we  are  persuaded.  In  this  respect,  as 
well  as  in  many  others,  the  residence  of  Colonel  Beckwith, 
of  whom  we  shall  have  more  to  say  hereafter,  has  been  a 
great  blessing  to  this  people.  Manufactures  may,  also,  be 
introduced,  to  some  extent.  So  that,  in  various  ways,  it  may 
be  possible  to  make  this  country  capable  of  sustaining  a 
greater  population.     Still,  the  scope  for  their  increase  is  so 


4-1  Indeed,  some  of  the  earlier  writers  who  treat  of  that  country,  represent  it  as 
only  being  twelve  Roman  miles  in  length,  and  ten  in  width.  This  is,  undoubt- 
edly, an  error.  The  estimate  which  we  have  given  in  the  text  is  that  made  by  Dr. 
Gilly,  in  his  second  work  respecting  the  Waldenses. 

28* 


330  THE    WALDENSES. 

obviously  limited,  that  they  will  be  ever  pressed  upon,  and 
many  will  be  compelled  to  emigrate  to  other  lands  to  find  the 
means  of  a  livelihood. 

The  reader  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  fact,  that  but 
a  small  portion  of  this  country  is  susceptible  of  cultivation. 
Immense  mountains  cover  by  far  the  greater  part  of  it,  as  we 
have  already  remarked,  and  leave  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
surfaceTor  the  hand  of  man  to  till. 

Having  taken  this  geographical  survey  of  the  country  of 
the  Waldenses,  we  are  now  prepared  to  enter  upon  their 
history. 


CHAPTER  III. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    WALDENSES. 

"VVe  have  said  enough  in  relation  to  the  antiquity  of  the 
Waldenses  to  establish,  to  a  reasonable  degree,  the  position 
that  Christianity  was  early  planted  in  the  valleys  which  they 
occupy.  Lying  between  the  north  part  of  Italy  and  the 
South  of  Franc-e,  in  which  countries  we  have  indubitable 
proof  that  the  Truth  was  long  maintained  after  it  had  been 
abandoned  in  almost  all  the  rest  of  Christendom,  nothing  can 
be  more  probable  than  that  they  also  should  have  adhered  to 
the  pure  gospel,  which  they  had  either  heard  from  apostles 
themselves,  or  from  very  early  Christian  missionaries.  This 
supposition  is  abundantly  sustained  by  the  testimonies  of  both 
the  friends  and  the  enemies  of  these  people. 

I.     They  helonged  at  first  to  the   General  Church. 

That  they  belonged  to  the  general,  or  Catholic  Church  of 
Christ,  during  the  first  eight  hundred  years,  is  quite  certain ; 
for  the  gross  errors  and  superstitions  which  the  papacy  has 
introduced,  though  then  gaining  a  practical  entrance  into 
many  portions  of  Christendom,  ^^  had  not  been  approved  by 
any  Council,  until  that  of  Nice,  convened  by  Pope  Adrian, 
A.  D.  792,  sanctioned  the  worship  of  images.     Even  this 

45  It  is  remarkable,  that  almost  all  the  great  corruptions  of  Christianity  arose  in 
the  East  and  spread  gradually  into  the  West.  It  was  for  dreadful  departures  from 
the  Truth,  that  God  in  his  righteous  judgment  permilled  various  enemies,  and 
especially  the  Mohammedan  Antichrist,  to  arise  in  that  quarter  to  oppress  the 
Church,  as  He  did  the  northern  barbarians,  and  ultimately  the  Roman  Antichrist,  to 
persecute  her  in  the  West. 


I 


332  THE    WALDENSES. 

innovation  was  earnestly  resisted  in  the  Council  of  Frankfort, 
held  A.  D.  794.  At  that  Council  the  western  churches 
made  great  opposition  to  this  relic  of  Paganism,  in  which 
they  had  the  powerful  assistance  of  Charlemagne,  who  had 
.•sent  the  famous  Claudius,  a  Spanish  priest,  to  protest  against 
the  monstrous  heresy. 

About  the  year  815,  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  (or,  as  he  is 
more  commonly  called  by  English  authors,  Louis  the  Meek,) 
B  son  of  Charlemagne,  appointed  this  same  Claudius,  or 
Claude,  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Turin.  The  Valleys  of 
the  "VYaldenses  were  within  the  limits  of  this  diocess ;  and  we 
may  be  sure  that  the  activity  and  zeal  of  that  great  and  good 
man,  who  has  been  called  the  '  Reformer  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury,' would  do  all  he  could  to  encourage  them  in  the  main- 
tenance of  that  sound  doctrine,  from  which  he  found  so  great 
a  tendency  to  depart,  in  the  then  Christian  world.  We 
know  well  that  Claude  held  and  taught,  that  men  ought  not  to 
run  to  Rome,  for  the  pardon  of  their  sins,  nor  have  recourse 
to  the  Saints  or  their  relics  ;  that  the  Church  is  not  founded 
on  St.  Peter,  much  less  upon  the  Pope,  hut  upon  the  doctrine 
of  the  Apostles  ;  that  they  ought  not  to  worship  Images,  nor  so 
much  as  have  them  in  their  Churches.  All  this,  and  much 
more,  that  proved  his  doctrines  to  be  evangelical  and  Protest- 
ant, we  know  from  Jonas  of  Orleans,  his  great  enemy,  as 
well  as  from  other  sources,  he  both  held  and  zealously  propa- 
gated. ^® 

And  we  have  already  seen  that  Rorenco,  the  Inquisitor,  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  after  having  had  good  opportunities 
for  investigating  this  subject,  asserts  that  the  '  heresy,'  as  he 
calls  it,  of  the  eighth  century,  by  which  he  clearly  means  the 
doctrines  of  Claude,  was  held  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centu- 


•*6  About  the  same  time,  or  rather  a  little  before,   Paulimis,   Bishop  of  Aquileia, 
maintained  and  taught  similar  doctrines. 


ORIGINALLY    CATHOLICS.  333 

ries,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Waldenses.  This  brings  us  down 
almost  to  the  days  of  Peter  Waldo,  the  Lyonese  merchant 
and  Reformer.  Upon  the  dispersion  of  his  followers,  and  the 
retirement  of  their  chief,  first  into  Picardy,  and  thence  into 
Bohemia,  where  he  died,  the  pious  band  in  the  valley 
received  a  considerable  accession  to  their  numbers,  from 
their  country  becoming  an  asylum  to  their  persecuted  breth- 
ren of  Lyons.  They  received  a  still  greater  increase,  when, 
in  the  first  years  of  the  century  following,  the  Albigenses 
were  rooted  out  of  the  south  of  France  by  the  bloody  cru- 
sades of  Simon  de  Montfort.  This  brings  us  to  the  thir- 
teenth century,  since  which  period  there  is  history  enough 
not  only  to  prove  that  the  Waldenses  then  existed  in  these 
valleys,  but  to  make  us  know  what  were  their  doctrines,  their 
manner  of  life,  and  their  sufferings  for  the  sake  of  Christ  and 
his  gospel. 

And  even  if  it  be  not  possible,  owing  to  the  loss  of  docu- 
ments, of  which  we  know  the  Waldenses  were  deprived  by 
their  enemies,  to  fill  up  every  gap  which  exists  in  their  his- 
tory, what  does  it  amount  to  ?  There  are  great  landmarks 
enough,  here  and  there,  if  we  may  so  express  ourselves,  from 
which  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  that  there  was  a  '  Church  in 
the  A\^ilderness '  of  these  valleys,  from  the  early  times  of 
Christianity  to  the  days  of  Peter  Waldo,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury —  after  which,  history  is  abundant.  Nor  do  these  inter- 
vals '  at  all  hinder  the  continual  succession  of  those  churches 
and  that  religion,'  as  Sir  Samuel  Morland  w^ell  remarks, 
*  no  more  than  those  dark  intervals  which  were  in  the  Church 
before  and  after  the  Deluge ;  those  intervals  of  the  Egyptian 
bondage,  the  Judges,  the  Babylonish  captivity,  and  the  like 
in  after  ages ;  no  more  than  the  sun  and  moon  do  cease  to  be, 
when  their  light  is  eclipsed,  or  withdraw^n  from  the  eye  by 
the  interposition  of  other  bodies ;  no  more  than  the  river  Po, 
the   Rhone,  or   Guadiana  in   Spain,  do   lose  their  continual 


334  THE    WALDENSES. 

current,  because  for  sometime  they  run  under  ground,  or 
among  the  rocks,  and  appear  not ;  so  for  the  Church  of  God, 
though  sometimes  it  has  not  been  so  visible  to  the  eyes  of 
men,  it  hath  notwithstanding  continued  in  a  constant,  unin- 
terrupted succession,  through  all  ages  and  generations.  Thus 
the  good  prophet  Elijah,  in  his  days,  thought  he  had  been 
left  alone,  but  yet,  God  had  reserved  at  that  very  time  seven 
thousand  souls  of  the  very  same  principles  and  profession 
with  himself '"' 

It  has  been  well  remarked  by  Leger,  the  historian  of  the 
Waldenses,  that  it  would  not  be  more  absurd  to  doubt  a 
man's  descent  from  Adam,  because  he  cannot  point  out  his 
forefathers  in  each  intervening  generation,  than  to  deny  the 
apostolical  origin  of  a  pure  Christian  Church,  because  its 
separate  succession  from  the  Apostles  cannot  be  established. 
And  here,  we  may  remark,  is  the  true  definition  of  apostoU' 
cal  as  applied  to  churches,  namely,  that  they  are  pure.  This 
is  nothing  more,  after  all,  than  the  definition  of  Tertullian.  ^ 

That  the  Waldenses  were  unmolested  in  their  mountain 
retreats  until  the  twelfth  century,  is  easily  accounted  for. 
The  popes  did  not  succeed  in  overcoming  the  resistance  of 
the  bishops  in  the  north  of  Italy  —  especially  those  of  Milan, 
Aquileia,  and  Turin,  —  until  the  eleventh  century.  Until 
this  was  accomplished,  they  had  not  time  to  look  after  the 
poor  followers  of  Christ,  in  the  obscure  valleys  of  the  Alps. 
But  circumstances  soon  occurred  which  led  to  the  persecution 
of  the  Waldenses  in  the  western  valleys,  in  Dauphiny  and 
Provence,  now  constituent  parts  of  France.  The  progress 
of  the  Truth  through  the  labors  of  Peter  Waldo,  the  rich 
merchant  of  Lyons,  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  among 

47  History  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  in  the    Valleys  of  Piedmont.    By   Samuel 
Morland,  Esq.,  p.  13. 

48  Nascentes  ex  matricibus  apostolicis  deputantur  ut  soboles  apostolicarum  ec- 
clesiarum. 


PETER    WALDO.  335 

the  causes  whicli  led  to  a  persecution  of  the  believers  of  the 
true  gospel,  which  soon  reached  the  Waldenses  in  the  prov- 
nces  just  named,  and  ultimately  fell  upon  those  in  Piedmont, 
where  it  raged,  as  we  shall  see,  more  than  three  hundred 
years. 

II.     Peter  Waldo  and  his  followers. 

Various  have  been  the  opinions  that  have  been  entertained 
respecting  the  origin  and  name  of  this  distinguished  individ- 
ual, than  whom  few  men  have  been  instruments  in  God's 
hands  of  doing  more  good.  But  we  think  that  that  which 
Mr.  Faber  has  given,  in  one  of  his  late  works,  ^^  is  decidedly 
the  most  plausible.     We  will  state  it  in  few  words. 

He  was  born  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont  or  Dauphiny,  and 
derives  his  cognomen  from  the  fact  that  the  country  where 
he  originated  was  called  Waldis,  Walden,  and  Vaudra,  by 
the  authors  who  have  given  an  account  of  him,  of  whom 
Reinerius  is  the  most  important  authority ;  hence  his  name 
of  Waldo,  or  the  Waldensian.  In  his  youth  he  went  to 
Lyons,  where  he  rose  to  distinction,  by  reason  of  success  in 
mercantile  business. 

On  a  certain  occasion,  whilst  in  company  with  a  number  of 
the  distinguished  citizens,  one  of  the  company  suddenly  fell 
down  dead.  This  solemn  occurrence  produced  a  great  effect 
upon  the  mind  of  Peter,  as  did  that  of  the  loss  of  a  friend  by 
lightning,  upon  the  mind  of  Luther.  But  Peter,  owing  to 
the  religious  instruction  which  he  had  received  in  his  native 
valleys,  instead  of  retiring,  as  Luther  did,  to  a  monastery,  or 
of  founding  one  with  his  great  wealth,  acted  in  just  such  a 
manner  as  one  might  expect  from  his  origin.  He  consecrated 
his  wealth  to  the  service  of  God  in  the  propagation  of  the 


49  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the  Ancient   Yallenses  and  Albigenses, 
pp.  450-496. 


336  THE    WALDENSES. 

gospel.  lie  became  remarkablj  charitable  to  the  poor ;  he 
preached  the  gospel  himself;  he  caused  the  Scriptures  to  be 
translated  into  the  language  of  the  people ;  and  circulated 
many  copies.  These  efforts  were  regarded  with  favor  by  the 
Great  Head  of  the  Church.  His  Spirit  was  poured  out,  and 
a  great  many  souls  were  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Truth.  This  enabled  Peter  to  organize  a  goodly  number 
into  a  band  of  missionaries,  whom  he  sent  forth  to  carry  the 
gospel  into  all  parts  of  France,  into  Flanders,  Germany, 
Poland,  Bohemia,  Austria,  and  Hungary.  In  this  way  the 
Truth  gained  in  a  few  years  a  wonderful  extension.  Peter 
himself,  as  De  Thou  informs  us,  leaving  Ms  own  country,  went 
into  Belgium  ;  and  in  Picardy,  as  they  now  call  the  province, 
obtained  many  followers.  Passing  thence  into  Germany,  he 
long  sojourned  among  the  Vandalic  States,  and  finally  settled 
in  Bohemia :  where  those,  ivho,  at  the  present  day,  embrace  his 
doctrine,  are,  on  that  account,  called  Picards.^^ 

Here  we  see  one  of  the  most  remarkable  missionary  move- 
ments that  have  ever  occurred.  These  humble  propagators  of 
the  gospel  went  forth  two  by  two,  supported  at  the  outset  by 
the  contributions  of  the  brethren  at  Lyons,  but  relying 
mainly  on  what  they  might  obtain  from  those  who  might  be 
willing  to  receive  the  truth  from  their  lips.  On  account  of 
their  poverty,  they  were  every  where  called  the  '  Poor  Men 
of  Lyons.' 

But  soon  the  pope  called  on  the  archbishop  of  Lyons,  to 
put  down  this  '  heresy,'  and  the  work  of  persecution  forth- 
with began.  Nor  was  it  confined  to  these  humble,  but 
sincere  Christians  at  Lyons;  it  soon  began  to  be  directed 
against  the  Albigenses,  a  numerous  body  of  Christians  in  the 
south  of  France,  who  were  descended  from  the  primitive 
stock,  but  who  had  been  increased  by  the  arrival  of  the 


60  Historia,  lib,  vi.  sec.  IG,  vol.  i.  p.  221. 


NUMBER.  337 

Paulicians,  in  the  early  part  of  the  preceding  century,  as 
well  as  by  the  cooperating  labors  of  the  '  Poor  Men  of 
Lyons.'  That  a  goodly  number  of  those,  who  escaped  from 
the  scenes  of  blood  which  ensued,  took  refuge  among  their 
fellow- Christians  in  the  valleys  of  Dauphiny  and  Piedmont, 
there  can  be  no  doubt. 

III.     JS^iimher  of  the  Waldenses  about  this  Period. 

We  have  no  data  for  ascertaining  the  population  of  these 
valleys  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  Those 
inhabited  by  the  Waldenses  were  much  more  extensive  than 
those  they  occupy  now ;  for  not  only  had  they  the  whole  of 
the  valley  through  which  the  Clusone  runs,  but  they  were 
also  numerous  in  the  Marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  and  in  the 
region  around  Susa.  And  yet,  owing  to  the  denseness  of  the 
population,  we  find  that  a  colony  left  these  valleys  in  the  year 
1370,  and  went  into  Calabria,  where  they  cultivated  waste 
lands,  and  founded  the  villages  of  La  Vicaricio,  La  Gard, 
Montolieu,  Les  Pousses,  Santo  Sisto,  St.  Vicens,  etc.  There 
their  descendants  increased  till  they  w  ere  several  thousand  in 
number.  How  that  flourishing  and  happy  colony  was  extii'- 
pated,  nearly  two  hundred  years  after  its  plantation,  we  stated 
in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  in  which  we  have  treated  of 
the  rise,  progress,  and  suppression  of  the  Reformation  in 
Italy. 

In  the  memoirs  of  Morel,  written  about  the  year  1530,  the 
number  of  persons  professing  the  Waldensian  faith  is  stated 
at  eight  hundred  thousand.  But  this  estimate  must  include  not 
only  the  Waldenses  of  Piedmont,  and  the  Protestants  in  the 
Marquisate  of  Saluzzo  and  the  province  of  Susa,  but  their 
brethren  in  Provence  and  Dauphiny,  and  those  in  the 
Pyrenees,  if  not  those  also  in  Bohemia,  Poland,  etc.  In 
1501,  it  appears  from  the  report  of  a  commissioner  appointed 
by  the  bishop  of  Embrun,  to  investigate  charges  against  the 
29 


338  THE    WALDENSES. 

Waldenses,  that  there  were  then  fifty  thousand  in  the  diocesses 
of  Embrun  and  Turin.  In  the  treaty  which  Henry  IV. 
made  with  the  churches  in  the  valleys,  in  the  year  1592,  it 
was  stated  that  the  proportion  between  the  Protestants  and 
the  Roman  Catholics,  was  a  hundred  to  one.  At  present  it 
is  as  five  and  a  half  to  one.  The  population  of  the  present 
valleys  has  decidedly  increased  within  the  last  one  hundred 
years.  There  could  not  have  been  more  than  eighteen  or 
nineteen  thousand  souls  in  them,  in  the  year  1655.  Sir 
Samuel  Morland  tells  us  that  there  were  fourteen  churches 
at  that  time.  There  are  now  fifteen,  and  there  are  people 
enough  for  six  or  seven  more. 

IV.      Their-  Aricient  Missionary  Spirit. 

There  was  nothing  more  remarkable  about  the  early  Wal- 
denses, than  their  missionary  spirit.  This,  we  have  just  said, 
chai'acterized,  in  a  particular  degree,  the  followers  of  Peter 
Waldo.  But  the  same  spirit  pervaded  all  the  people  of  the 
same  faith,  wherever  they  lived,  in  those  dark  ages,  and  by 
whatever  name  they  were  called  —  Vaudois,  Paulicians, 
Patarins,  Cathari,  Leonists,  Lollards,  Albigenses,  Poor  Men 
of  Lyons,  etc.  It  was  by  sending  out  missionaries,  two  by 
two,  on  foot,  to  visit  their  brethren  dispersed  in  France,  the 
north  of  Spain,  Flanders,  England,  Germany,  Poland, 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Italy,  that  they 
kept  alive  the  little  piety  which  existed  in  the  world  at 
that  day.  These  missionaries  knew  where  to  find  their 
brethren ;  they  went  to  their  houses,  held  little  meetings, 
administered  the  ordinances,  ordained  deacons,  and  sus- 
tained the  faith  and  hopes  of  the  tempted  and  persecuted 
ones.  It  is  said  that  these  missionaries  could  go,  at  one 
period,  from  Cologne  to  Florence,  and  stay  every  night  at  the 
houses  of  brethren.  It  is  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
missionaries  wliich   these   little  and   poor   churches   in  the 


MISSIONARY    SPIRIT.  339 

valleys  sustained,  that  we  read  of  there  being  sometimes  one 
hundred  and  forty  or  fifty  ministers  at  the  meetings  of  their 
synods.  But  few  of  these  were  needed  at  home ;  the  most 
were  engaged  in  the  foreign  work. 

It  is  also  remarkable  that  almost  all  the  men  whom  God 
raised  up  from  time  to  time,  in  France,  and  other  countries, 
for  more  than  six  hundred  years  before  the  Reformation,  seem 
to  have  had  more  or  less  to  do  with  the  Waldenses ;  such 
as  Peter  Waldo,  Peter  Bruys,  Henry  of  Lausanne,  Lollard 
—  who  labored  with  so  much  zeal  to  diffuse  the  Truth  in 
England,  and  who  was  burned  at  Cologne. 

But  not  only  did  preachers  go  out  from  the  valleys  to  pro- 
claim the  glorious  gospel,  but  humble  pious  pedlers,  or 
itinerating  merchants,  of  whom  there  were  many  in  the 
middle  ages,  scattered  the  truth  by  carrying  some  leaves  of 
the  Word  of  Life,  or  some  manuscript  tracts,  beneath  their 
merchandize,  which  they  engaged  those  whom  they  found  to 
be  favorably  disposed,  to  receive  and  read. 

The  following  beautiful  verses,  descriptive  of  this  traffic 
of  the  Waldensian  pedlers,  were  published  in  a  valuable 
religious  Journal,  a  few  years  ago.^^ 

THE    VAUDOIS    MISSIONARY. 


O,  lady  fair,  these  silks  of  mine 

Are  beautiful  and  rare  — 
The  richest  web  of  the  Indian  loom 

Which  beauty's  self  might  wear. 
And  these  pearls  are  pure  and  mild  to  behold, 

And  with  radiant  light  they  vie ; 
I  have  brought  them  with  me  a  weaiy  way : 

Will  my  gentle  lady  buy  ? 

51  The  London  Christian  Observer. 


34:0  THE    WALDENSES. 


And  the  lady  smiled  on  the  worn  old  man, 

Through  the  dark  and  clustering  curls 
Which  veiled  her  brow  as  she  bent  to  view 

His  silk  and  glittering  pearls ; 
And  she  placed  their  price  in  the  old  man's  hand, 

And  lightly  turned  away : 
But  she  paused  at  the  wanderer's  eaniest  call  — 

'  My  gentle  lady,  stay ! ' 


'  0,  lady  fair,  I  have  yet  a  gem 

Which  a  pui-er  lustre  flings 
Than  the  diamond  flash  of  the  jewelled  crown 

On  the  lofty  brow  of  kings ; 
A  wonderful  pearl  of  exceeding  price, 

Whose  virtue  shall  not  decay; 
Whose  light  shall  be  as  a  spell  to  thee, 

And  a  blessing  on  thy  way  ! ' 


The  lady  glanced  at  the  min-oring  steel, 

Where  her  youthful  form  was  seen, 
Wliere  her  eyes  shone  clear  and  her  dark  locks  waved 

Their  clasping  pearls  between ; 
'  Bring  forth  thy  pearl  of  exceeding  worth, 

Thou  traveller  gray  and  old ; 
And  name  the  price  of  thy  precious  gem. 

And  my  pages  shall  count  thy  gold.' 


The  cloud  went  off  from  the  pilgrim's  brow, 

As  a  small  and  meagre  book 
TJnchased  with  gold  or  diamond  gem, 

From  his  folding  robe  he  took : 
'  Here,  lady  fair,  is  the  pearl  of  price  — 

May  it  prove  as  such  to  thee  ! 
Nay,  keep  thy  gold  —  I  ask  it  not  — 

Fo)'  the  Word  of  God  is  free.^ 


BEGINNING    OF   PERSECUTION.  341 


The  hoary  traveller  went  his  way  — 

But  the  gift  he  left  behind 
Hath  had  its  pure  and  perfect  work 

On  that  high-bom  maiden's  mind ; 
And  she  hath  turned  from  her  pride  of  sin 

To  the  lowliness  of  truth, 
And  given  her  human  heart  to  God 

In  its  beautiful  hour  of  youth. 


And  she  hath  left  the  old  gray  walls 

Where  an  evil  faith  hath  power, 
The  courtly  knights  of  her  father's  train, 

And  the  maidens  of  her  bower; 
And  she  hath  gone  to  the  Vaudois  vale, 

By  lordly  feet  untrod, 
Where  the  poor  and  needy  of  earth  are  rich 

In  the  perfect  love  of  God ! 


V.     Beginning  of  Persecution  in  the    Valleys. 

And  soon  persecution  began  to  be  directed  to  these  moun- 
tain fastnesses,  and  especially  to  those  of  Dauphiny.  As  to 
the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  the  political  state  of  things  in  that 
country  retarded  any  very  open  and  extended  efforts  to 
destroy  the  Christians  who  inhabited  them  until  the  fifteenth 
century.  For  it  was  not  till  then  that  the  dukes  of  Savoy 
felt  assured  in  the  possession  of  them.  ^^ 


52  The  Valleys  of  the  Waldenses  were  originally  part  of  the  Marquisate  of  Susaor 
the  Duchy  of  Turin,  both  of  which  were  fiefs  of  the  German  empire,  and  vested,  in 
the  eariy  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  in  the  person  of  Adelaide,  widow  of  Herman, 
Duke  of  Suabia.  About  the  year  1038,  this  princess  was  married  to  Oddon,  Count  of 
Savoy  and  Maurienne.  Upon  her  decease,  in  the  year  1091,  her  grandson,  Humbert 
II.,  of  Savoy,  claimed  the  possession  of  her  territories.  But  his  claim  was  disputed 
by  other  issue  of  Adelaide,  and  the  metropolitans  of  Turin,  down  to  the  year  1252; 
when  the  right  was  established  by  a  formal  grant  of  these  fiefs,  with  many  others, 
from  the  Emperor  William,  in  favor  of  Thomas  II.,  descendant  of  Oddon.    But  the 

29* 


342  THE    WALDENSES. 

But  at  length  the  pope  prevailed  on  the  dukes  of  Savoy 
to  suffer  the  work  of  exterminating  '  heresy,'  in  the  valleys 
of  their  Italian  possessions,  to  be  attempted.  And  then  the 
storm  began  to  arise.  At  first,  it  was  like  the  sprinkling  of 
heavy  drops  which  are  but  the  precursors  of  the  tremendous 
tempest  which  is  to  sweep  over  the  land.  The  Waldenses 
were  seized  and  imprisoned  when  they  dared  to  issue  from 
their  native  country,  and  descend  into  the  plain,  no  matter 
for  what  purpose.  The  prisons  of  Pignerol,  Saluzzo,  Susa, 
and  Turin,  were,  from  time  to  time,  filled  with  heretics. 
Inquisitors  pervaded  the  valleys  to  find  out  the  abodes  of 
those  who  were  most  obnoxious  to  the  wrath  of  Eome.  This 
work  went  on,  both  sides  of  the  Alps,  but  most  in  Dauphiny. 

But  soon  this  guerrilla  persecution,  if  we  may  so  call  it, 
■was  succeeded,  or  rather  aided,  —  for  it  was  long  afterwards 
prosecuted  —  by  open  war  ;  the  dukes  of  Savoy  furnishing  the 
armies  needed,  upon  the  demand  of  the  pope's  legates.  The 
first  notable  onset  was  made  on  Christmas,  A.  D.  1400, 
when  an  armed  force  of  Roman  Catholics  from  Susa  invaded 
the  valley  of  Pragela,  then  occupied  wholly  by  the  Walden- 
ses, and  fell  unexpectedly  on  the  peaceable  inhabitants. 
Many  were  slain  on  the  spot.  All  that  could,  fled  to  the 
Albergean,  a  high  mountain  which  separates  the  valley  of 
Pragela  from  that  of  St.  Martin.  Among  the  wretched  be- 
ings who  were  seen  clambering  up  the  mountain-side  amid 
the  deep  snow,  were  mothers  carrying  their  infant  children 
in  cradles  on  their  backs,  and  leading  those  of  greater  age, 
who  were  able  to  walk.  But  when  arrived  at  the  summit, 
exhausted  with  fatigue,  and  having  no  means  of  creating  a 
fire  to  relieve  themselves  from  the  piercing  cold,  most  of 
them  became  quite  benumbed  during  the  night ;  and  when 


Marquess  of  Montserrat  contested  the  possession  of  the  country  till  the  15th  century. 
— Guichenon's  Histoire  Genealogique  de  la  Maison  Royale  de  Savoie^  vol.  i.  p.  197,  et 
seq. — quoted  by  Acland^  in  his  translation  of  the  Glorieuse  Rentree,  pp.  li,  lii. 


CRUSADE    AGAINST    THE    WALDENSES.  34 

the  morning  came,  it  found  not  fewer  than  eighty  infants 
dead  in  their  cradles,  and  their  mothers  stretched  by  their 
side  in  a  dying  state  !  This  was  among  the  first  of  Rome's 
efforts  to  convert  these  poor  people,  by  force,  to  her  Faith. 

VI.      Crusades  against  the    Waldenscs  commenced. 

But  it  was  not  till  the  year  1487  that  the  regular  crusades 
were  commenced  against  the  Waldenses.  This  year,  Albert 
de  Capitaneis,  the  nuncio  of  Pope  Innocent  VIIL,  persuaded 
the  King  of  France,  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  other  neighbor- 
ing princes  to  undertake  the  extirpation  of  the  '  heretics.' 
Accordingly,  an  army  of  twenty-four  thousand  men,  having 
been  drawn  together,  the  country  was  invaded  from  several 
quarters  at  one  and  the  same  time.  The  principal  attack 
was  directed  against  the  valley  of  Angrogna,  as  being  the 
strong-hold,  whither  many  of  the  inhabitants  had  retired. 
But  the  leader  of  the  force,  which  was  sent  against  them, 
having  marched  far  up  the  valley  was  met,  just  below  Pra 
del  Tor,  in  a  narrow  defile,  by  the  Waldenses.  At  the  out- 
set of  the  battle  he  was  killed  by  a  stone  hurled  by  a  slinger 
who  stood  on  a  rock  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  his 
men  were  soon  driven  back  with  an  overwhelming  defeat. 
A  great  many  were  crushed  by  masses  of  rocks  rolled  down 
upon  them,  or  were  dashed  into  the  impetuous  torrent  be- 
low. The  attacks  on  other  valleys  were  also  unsuccessful ; 
and  the  Duke,  a  year  or  two  afterwards,  was  heartily  dis- 
posed to  terminate  a  war  in  which  he  had  gained  notliing  but 
loss  and  disgrace.  He  therefore  invited  the  inhabitants  to 
send  deputies  to  him  at  Pignerol,  with  whom  he  made  a  peace, 
in  which  he  confirmed  their  former  privileges,  declaring  that 
the  inhabitants  of  these  valleys  were  the  best,  the  most  faith- 
ful, and  most  obedient  subjects  which  he  had.  As  he  had 
been  told  that  the  children  of  these  people  were  born  with 
one  eye,  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  like  that  of  a  Cyclops, 


344  THE    WALDENSES. 

and  had  four  rows  of  black  teeth,  he  desired  to  have  some  of 
them  brought  to  him,  that  he  might  ascertain  whether  the 
report  was  true  or  not.  From  this  instance  we  may  form 
some  opinion  of  the  ridiculous  stories  which  were  circulated 
respecting  these  excellent  but  detested  people. 

About  this  time  the  marchioness  of  Saluzzo,  —  a  territory 
south  of  that  of  the  Waldenses,  and  not  at  that  time  under 
the  dominion  of  Savoy,  —  instigated  by  the  Inquisitors,  ex- 
pelled the  Waldenses  from  her  territories.  But  having 
found  a  retreat  in  the  valley  of  Luserne,  they  there  armed 
themselves,  returned,  took  possession  of  their  former  abodes, 
and  remained  in  the  unmolested  enjoyment  of  them  for 
nearly  a  century  longer. 

VII.     Second  Crusade  against  the  Waldenses, 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  the  above-mentioned  duke  of 
Savoy,  Philip  VII.,  his  son  and  successor,  Charles,  was  im- 
portuned by  the  Archbishop  of  Turin  and  the  Inquisitors,  to 
make  another  crusade  against  the  dwellers  in  the  valleys. 
To  accomplish  the  task,  Pantaleon  Bressour,  lord  of  Roche- 
plate,  was  sent  with  an  army  of  fifteen  hundred  chosen  men. 
At  the  outset  he  destroyed  every  thing  before  him,  and 
allowed  his  men  to  commit  horrid  barbarities.  But  the 
second  day  of  the  campaign  he  was  completely  routed  in  the 
valley  of  Luserne,  where  he  was  suddenly  attacked  on  all 
sides  by  the  Waldensian  slingers.  After  this  he  contented 
himself  with  ravaging  the  lower  parishes,  which  extend  into 
the  plain  country,  or,  rather,  border  upon  it.  In  this  way  he 
carried  off  much  booty,  and  filled  the  prisons  and  monasteries 
at  Pignerol,  and  the  Inquisition  at  Turin,  with  captives,  many 
of  whom  died  in  prison,  and  some  were  burned  alive  —  suf- 
fering death  with  the  heroism  of  Christian  martyrs.  The 
Duke,  finding  this  war  an  unprofitable  business,  soon  after- 
wards put  an  end  to  it.     Nor  can  we  help  approving  of  this 


VALLEYS  UNDER  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  FRANCE.   345 

determination,  if  the  remark  which  is  attributed  to  him  be 
true,  namely,  '  that  the  skin  of  a  "Waldensian  always  cost 
fifteen  or  twenty  of  his  best  Catholics.' 

VIII.      The  Valleys  come  under  the  Government  of  France. 

In  the  year  1536,  the  events  of  war  produced  a  change  of 
masters,  but  brought  no  solace  to  the  griefs  of  the  Wal- 
denses.  Francis  I.,  who  had  conquered  Piedmont,  replied  to 
their  humble  supplication  for  toleration,  —  '  that  he  did  not 
burn  heretics  in  France,  to  endure  them  in  the  Alps.'  ^^ 

During  the  twenty-three  years  that  France  possessed  these 
valleys,  there  was  no  open  persecution  of  their  poor  inhabi- 
tants, but  the  Inquisitors  were  all  the  while  seizing  whom 
they  could,  and  dragging  them  to  Turin,  where  many  were 
condemned  to  the  flames.  Their  sufferings  are  said  to  have 
affected  the  Catholic  population  of  that  city,  who  witnessed 
them,  to  tears,  and  caused  them  to  exclaim  in  loud  terms 
against  such  cruelty.  At  this  time,  a  shocking  persecution 
was  going  on,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  in  Provence  and 
Dauphiny ;  for  Francis  I.  had  none  of  the  noble  spirit  of 
Louis  XII.,  who,  when  urged  to  persecute  his  newly  acquired 
subjects  in  Dauphiny,  had  the  justice  to  inquire  what  sort  of 
people  the  Waldenses  were,  whose  extermination  was  de- 
manded by  Rome.  And  when  he  learned  what  was  the 
truth  respecting  them,  he  declared  to  his  attendants,  —  '  they 
are  letter  Christians  than  we  are,'  and  refused  to  let  them  be 
disturbed.  Francis  I.  and  his  son,  Henry  IL,  were  men  of  a 
very  different  character  from  him  who  was  justly  called  the 
Father  of  his  people. 

It  was  during  this  interval  of  comparative  rest,  that  the 
Waldenses  applied  themselves  to  the  erecting  of  churches. 
Previously  to  this,  they  had  been  accustomed  to  assemble  for 

53  Qu'il  ne  faisait  pas  bruler  les  heretiques  en  France  pour  les  supporter  parmi 
les  Alpes. 


346  THE    WALDENSES. 

public  worship  at  the  preshyteres,  or  houses  of  their  pastors. 
It  was  during  this  period,  also,  that  they  caused  a  translation 
of  the  Bible,  made  by  Robert  Olivetan,  one  of  their  pastors, 
to  be  printed  at  Neuchatel,  at  an  expense  of  fifteen  hundred 
crowns  in  gold.  This  was,  we  believe,  the  first  translation  of 
the  Bible  made  in  French.  The  study  of  this  sacred  volume, 
wherever  it  was  possessed  by  the  people,  did  much  to  fortify 
them  in  their  adherence  to  the  truth,  and  to  prepare  them  for 
the  trials  which  might  yet  await  them.  Vast  numbers  of  the 
copies  of  this  Bible  were  burned,  however,  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  during  the  subsequent  persecutions. 

IX.     Persecution  renewed  hy  Emanuel  Philihert. 

At  length  Piedmont  reverted  to  Savoy,  and  with  it  the 
valleys  inhabited  by  the  Waldenses.  Under  the  reign  of 
their  native  prince,  Emanuel  Philibert,  they  hoped  to  enjoy 
peace  and  protection,  inasmuch  as  his  duchess,  Margaret  of 
France,  was  known  to  be  favorable  to  their  interests.  But 
papal  influence  soon  triumphed  again  at  the  court  of  Savoy, 
and  an  edict,  dated  at  Nice,  1560,  authorized  another  crusade 
against  these  unoffending  people.  To  their  humble  petitions 
for  freedom  from  molestation,  presented  to  him  under  the 
auspices  of  certain  of  the  nobility,  the  duke  gave  no  favorable 
reply.  In  these  appalling  circumstances,  they  appointed  a 
solemn  fast.  After  this  they  carried  their  wives,  children, 
and  aged  and  infirm  people,  together  with  most  of  their 
goods,  to  places  of  security  in  the  higher  valleys,  and  pre- 
pared to  defend  themselves  to  the  uttermost.  And  it  may  be 
stated  as  a  fact  which  reflects  the  highest  honor  upon  their 
character,  that  such  was  the  confidence  reposed  in  them  by 
their  Catholic  neiglijbors,  that  on  the  appearance  of  the 
duke's  army,  they  committed  their  wives  and  daughters  to 
their  safe  keeping  in  those  elevated  retreats.     And  what  a 


PERSECUTION    RENEWED    BY   EMANUEL    PHILIBERT.    347 

reflection  on  the  character  of  the  soldiers  and  officers  of  the 
Savoyards,  that  this  was  done  to  avoid  their  brutality ! 

A  large  force  soon  entered  the  valleys,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Count  de  la  Trinite,  who  set  about  the  work  of 
ravaging  the  country.  But  he  was  worsted  in  almost  every 
engagement,  and  compelled  to  retire  into  the  plain  below. 
With  the  return  of  spring,  he  renewed  the  attack ;  but 
suffered  a  shameful  loss  at  Villar,  where  the  Waldenses 
stormed  a  newly-erected  fort.  Driven  to  madness,  the  count 
invaded  the  valley  of  Angrogna  the  day  following,  with  eight 
thousand  chosen  men,  determined  to  expel  the  Waldenses 
from  Pra  del  Tor,  a  small  plain  or  basin,  in  the  heart  of  the 
mountains,  whence  they  had  never  yet  been  driven.  But 
after  four  days  hard  fighting,  and  the  loss  of  ten  officers  and 
four  hundred  privates  left  on  the  ground,  he  was  compelled 
to  retreat.  A  second  attempt  was  attended  with  still  more 
disastrous  results  ;  for  the  Waldenses  attacked  him,  in  turn, 
and  pursued  the  fugitives  through  the  rough  and  narrow 
valley  of  Angrogna,  where  the  mountain-torrent  and  the 
precipice  proved  almost  as  destructive  as  the  sword  and  the 
descending  rock. 

At  last,  the  duke  grew  tired  of  the  war,  and  through  the 
mediation  of  his  duchess,  Margaret,  terms  of  peace,  with 
conditions  eminently  favorable  to  liberty  of  conscience,  were 
offered  to  the  Waldenses,  and  accepted. 

Yet  four  years  scarcely  passed  away  before  this  same 
prince  published  an  edict,  ordering,  '  that  all  who  did  not, 
within  ten  days,  pledge  themselves,  in  the  presence  of  a 
magistrate,  to  attend  on  mass,  should,  within  two  months, 
expatriate  themselves.'  But  the  execution  of  this  edict  was 
arrested  by  the  energetic  interference  of  some  of  the  German 
Protestant  princes,  especially  the  Duke  of  Saxony  and  the 
Elector  of  the  Palatinate. 


348  THE    WALDENSES. 


X.      The  State  of  things  grows  worse. 

Every  year  seemed  to  develope  more  and  more  the  hatred 
of  the  Roman  Catholics  towards  these  poor  people.  The 
limits  of  the  country  were  continually  restricted ;  sudden 
attacks,  made  upon  them  by  their  neighbors,  for  the  sake  of 
pillage,  were  permitted,  if  not  authorized;  great  numbers 
were  thrown  into  prison ;  and  the  goods  of  many  were  con- 
fiscated. And  when  Henry  lY.,  of  France,  gave  up  the 
Marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  in  exchange  for  some  territory  near 
to  Geneva,  eight  Waldensian  congregations  were  dispersed, 
or  compelled  to  flee  to  other  lands,  by  order  of  Charles 
Emanuel,  duke  of  Savoy,  and  every  vestige  of  their  religion 
was  extirpated  from  this  newly  acquired  territory. 

About  this  time,  Protestant  schools  and  colleges  were  sup- 
pressed in  the  valleys,  and  the  inhabitants  forbidden  to  send 
their  children  abroad  for  education,  under  severe  penalties. 
Roman  Catholic  convents  were  opened  in  their  midst ;  and 
the  abduction  of  their  children,  for  the  purpose  of  conversion, 
was  permitted,  if  not  sanctioned  by  law.^  Yet  there  were 
brief  seasons,  when  these  oppressed  people  were  treated  with 
some  degree  of  favor,  as  in  1603,  when,  through  the  influence 
of  the  count  of  Luserne,  they  were  allowed  to  enjoy  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion  within  their  valleys,  to  trade  with 
the  Catholics,  and  to  fill  official  situations.  The  first  instance 
on  record  of  the  interposition  of  England  in  their  behalf,  was 
in  the  year  1627,  when  an  extraordinary  ambassador  arrived 
at  Turin,  and  interceded  successfully.  Two  years  later, 
another  envoy,  from  Great  Britain,  did  the  same  thing. 
From  this  time  till  the  death  of  Victor  Amadeus  L,  in  1627, 
the  valleys  enjoyed  almost  uninterrupted  peace. 


54  Boys  might  be  carried  away  if  under  twelve  years  of  age,  and  girls,  if  under 
sixteen ! 


HORRIBLE    PERSECUTION.  349 

After  the  death  of  that  i'>rince,  Rome  renewed  her  influ- 
ence upon  the  court  of  Savoy,  to  work  the  ruin  of  the  Wal- 
denses.  About  the  year  1650,  a  congregation  or  society  was 
organized  at  Turin,  in  imitation  of  the  Propaganda  at  Home, 
which  employed  all  its  resources  to  accomplish  this  object. 
Even  a  society  of  noble  ladies  was  organized,  for  the  purpose 
of  employing  female  influence  to  bring  about  this  end.  These 
ladies  sent  spies  into  the  valleys,  to  sow  discord  in  private 
families ;  they  visited  the  prisons  and  dungeons  to  make 
converts  of  the  Waldenses  who  were  there;  and  labored  in 
other  ways  to  proselyte  the  people  to  Rome.  But  it  was  all 
in  vain ;  their  success  bore  no  proportion  to  their  pains. 

XL      The  horrible  Persecution  of  1655. 

But  at  length  a  greater  storm  than  any  that  had  preceded 
it,  burst  upon  the  devoted  heads  of  these  people.  On  the 
17th  of  April,  1655,  an  army  of  fifteen  thousand  Piedmontese, 
four  regiments  of  French  soldiers,  a  German  corps,  and  one 
thousand  two  hundred  Irish,  entered  the  valleys,  under  the 
command  of  the  Marquis  of  Pianessa.  Though  repulsed  at 
first,  the  marquis  gained  possession,  by  stratagem,  of  St.  Jean, 
La  Tour,  Yillar,  Bobi,  the  village  of  Angrogna,  and  all  the 
other  points  w^hich  were  not  in  the  highest  portions  of  the 
country.  Then,  upon  a  signal  being  given  from  the  crag  of 
Castelluzza,  near  La  Tour,  such  scenes  of  blood  as  this  world 
has  not  often  witnessed  in  modern  times,  among  nations  which 
pretend  to  be  Christian,  began  on  the  tw^enty-fourth  of  that 
month  to  be  enacted.  Indeed,  w^hen  we  read  the  minute 
account  of  it,  which  Leger  and  Sir  Samuel  Morland  have 
given,  accompanied  with  engravings  illustrating  the  horrid 
acts  of  barbarity  and  wickedness  which  were  committed,  we 
are  tempted  to  believe  that  the  w^ork  was  not  done  by  human 
beings,  but  by  demons  fresh  from  the  infernal  pit. 

Houses  and  churches  were  burned  to  the  ground.  Infants 
30 


350  THE    WALDENSES. 

were  remorselessly  torn  from  the  breasts  of  their  mothers,  and 
dashed  against  the  walls  or  the  rocks,  or  had  their  brains 
dashed  out  against  each  other ;  or  two  soldiers,  taking  each  a 
leg,  rent  them  asunder,  or  cut  them  in  two  with  their  swords. 
The  sick  were  either  burned  alive,  cut  in  pieces,  or  thrown 
down  the  precipices  with  their  heads  tied  between  their  legs. 
Mothers  and  daughters  were  violated  in  each  other's  pres- 
ence, impaled,  and  either  carried  naked  as  ensigns  upon 
pikes  at  the  head  of  the  regiments,  or  left  upon  poles  by  the 
road-side.  Others  had  their  arms  and  breasts  cut  off.  Men, 
after  being  indecently  and  barbarously  mutilated,  were  cut 
up  limb  by  limb,  as  butchers  cut  up  meat  in  the  shambles  ; 
they  had  gunpowder  thrust  into  their  mouths  and  other  parts 
of  their  bodies,  and  then  were  blown  up.  Multitudes  had  their 
noses,  fingers,  and  toes  amputated,  and  then  left  to  perish  in 
the  snow.^^  Some,  both  men  and  women,  were  buried  alive. 
Some  were  dragged  by  the  hair  on  the  ground  at  the  tail  of 
a  mule.  Numbers  were  cast  into  a  burning  furnace.  Young 
women  fled  from  their  pursuers,  and  leaped  down  precipices, 
and  were  killed,  rather  than  submit  to  their  brutal  violence. 
That  these  things  occurred,  we  have  in  proof  the  depositions 
of  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  witnesses,  taken  in  the 
presence  of  notaries-public,  and  of  the  consistories  of  the 
different  localities.  Morland  and  Leger  give  all  the  details, 
with  the  names  of  the  men  and  women  who  suffered  the 
greatest  cruelty,  as  well  as  the  depositions  of  the  witnesses. 

XII.     Effect  upon  Protestant  Europe. 

As  soon  as  it  was  practicable,  the  moderator  of  the  synod 
the  celebrated  historian  Leger,  called  together  the  princip£ 
persons  who  had  escaped,  drew  up  a  statement  of  the  par 
ticulars,  and  forwarded  it  to  all  the  Protestant  states  of  Eu^ 

55  Dr.  Henderson's  Vaudois,  pp.  21,  22. 


EFFECT    UPON    PROTESTANT    EUROPE.  351 

rope.  The  effect  was  instantaneous  and  tremendous.  Re- 
monstrances came  from  all  of  tliem  in  quick  succession,  and 
envoys  were  sent  from  several  of  them  to  put  an  end  to  this 
bloody  affair  by  negotiation.  Of  these,  one  of  the  most  ener- 
getic was  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  Cromwell's  envoy,  who  ad- 
dressed the  duke  of  Savoy  in  presence  of  his  mother,  in 
language  of  extraordinary  boldness.  His  concluding  words 
were  :  —  'In  the  mean  time  the  angels  are  seized  with  hor- 
ror !  Men  are  amazed  !  Heaven  itself  is  astonished  with  the 
cries  of  dying  men !  The  earth  blushes,  being  discolored 
with  the  blood  of  so  many  innocent  persons.  Do  not  thou, 
O  most  high  God !  do  not  thou  take  that  revenge  which  is 
due  to  such  aggravated  wickedness  and  horrible  villany. 
Let  thy  blood,  O  Christ !  wash  away  the  stain  of  this  blood  I ' 
It  was  upon  this  occasion,  that  Milton,  who  was  Crom- 
well's secretary,  wrote  the  following  inimitable  sonnet,  so 
well  known,  and  so  universally  admired :  — 

'  Avenge,  0  Lord  !  thy  slaughtered  saints,  whose  hones 
Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountains  cold  5 
Even  them,  who  kept  thy  truth  so  pure  of  old, 
When  all  our  fathers  Avorshipped  stocks  and  stones, 

Forget  not :  in  thy  book  record  their  groans, 
Who  were  thy  sheep,  and  in  their  ancient  fold. 
Slain  by  the  bloody  Piedmontese,  that  rolled 
Mother  with  infant  down  the  rocks.     The  moans 
The  vales  redoubled  to  the  hills,  and  they 
To  heaven.    Their  martyred  blood  and  ashes  sow 
O'er  all  the  Italian  fields,  where  still  doth  sway 

The  triple  tyrant  5  that  from  these  may  grow 
A  hundred  fold,  who,  having  learned  thy  way, 
Early  may  fly  the  Babylonian  woe.' 

But  before  the  arrival  of  the  envoys  from  the  Protestant 
countries,  the  Waldenses  were  compelled  to  fight  many  bat- 
tles in  the  valleys  of  Rora  and  Luserne,  in  pai'ticular.     In 


352  THE    WALDENSES. 

these,  Jaliier  and  Janavel  greatly  distinguished  themselves, 
as  we  have  already  stated.  But  at  length  the  former  was 
killed,  and  the  latter  severely  wounded.  At  that  juncture 
the  ambassadors  came,  and  by  their  effective  interference  ^ 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  on  the  eighteenth  of  August, 
by  which  the  Waldenses  were  reinstated  in  all  their  former 
possessions,  with  the  exception  of  Luserne,  Lusernette,  Fenil, 
Campillon,  Bubiana,  and  Briqueras. 

To  relieve  the  wants  of  the  Waldenses,  whose  circumstances 
were  for  a  long  time  most  distressing,  after  the  war  was 
over,  liberal  contributions  were  made  in  their  behalf  in  En- 
gland, Holland,  Switzerland,  and  other  Protestant  countries. 
As  for  Cromwell,  then  Protector,  he  not  only  appointed  a 
day  of  special  humiliation  and  prayer,  but  ordered  collections 
to  be  made  in  all  the  churches  and  chapels,  throughout  En- 
gland, Scotland,  and  Ireland,  for  their  relief.  This  collection 
amounted  to  £38,241  10s.  M.,  of  which  £21,908  M.  were 
remitted  in  the  course  of  the  two  following  years  and  a  half. 
Cromwell  himself  gave  £2,000,  and  employed  Milton  to 
write  letters  in  his  name  to  the  kings  of  France,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  to  the  United  Provinces,  the  Swiss  Cantons,  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  the 
prince  of  Transylvania,  and  other  powers,  imploring  their  aid 
in  behalf  of  the  suffering  Waldenses.  The  replies  which  he 
received  express  the  deepest  abhorrence  of  the  bloody  deed 
which  had  been  done  in  the  valleys,  and  a  forwardness  to 
come  to  their  assistance.  They  are  to  be  found  in  Morland's 
work  relating  to  the  Waldenses.  ^ 

As  to  the  sum  of  £16,333,  lOs.  od.  which   CromweU  had 

56  So  earnest  was  Cromwell  in  this  affair,  that  he  is  reported  to  have  declared  to 
the  duke  of  Savoy,  that  if  he  did  not  discontinue  his  persecutions,  he  would  cause  a 
fleet  to  sail  over  the  Alps  to  defend  the  Waldenses.  Authentic  Details  of  the  Wal- 
denses^ p.  217.     Dr.  Henderson's  Vaudois,  p.  25. 

57  Dr.  Henderson's  Vaudois,  pp.  25,  26. 


DEPLORABLE    CONDITION.  353 

put  into  the  hands  of  the  government  to  form  a  fund  for  the 
future  aid  of  the  Waldenses,  Charles  II.,  to  his  everlasting 
disgrace,  appropriated  it  to  the  gratification  of  his  mis- 
tresses, and  said,  when  interrogated  about  the  matter,  that  he 
Avas  under  no  obligation  to  pay  the  debts  of  a  usurper !  The 
English  government,  it  will  be  seen  in  another  chapter,  has 
not  been  unmindful  of  its  duty  in  respect  to  this  subject,  but 
has  effectually  obliterated  the  infamy  which  a  worthless 
Stuart  had  brought  uj)on  it. 

XIII.     The  State  of  the  Waldenses  continues  deplorable. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the  spirited  interfer- 
ence of  Cromwell  and  other  Protestant  rulers  did  not  ac- 
complish all  that  one  might  have  expected  from  it.  The  ex- 
cellent Leger  was  banished  from  valleys  to  which  he  had 
rendered  so  much  service.  ^  '  It  is  my  unhappiness,'  says  Sir 
Samuel  Morland,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  work, '  to  leave  them 
where  I  found  them,  among  the  potsherds,  with  sackcloth  and 
ashes  spread  under  them.  To  this  very  day  they  labor  under 
heavy  burdens,  which  are  laid  on  their  shoulders  by  those 
rigid  taskmasters  of  the  Church  of  Eome.  To  this  very  day 
do  the  enemies  of  the  Truth  plough  and  make  furrows  upon 
their  hacks,  by  robbing  them  of  their  goods  and  estates ;  by 
banishing  their  ministers,  who  were  the  shepherds  of  the 
flock,  that  the  wolves  may  the  better  come  in  and  devour 
them;  by  ravishing  their  young  women  and  maidens;  by 
murdering  many  innocent  souls ;  by  cruel  mockings  and 
revilings ;  by  continual  menaces  of  another  massacre  —  what 
shall  I  say  ?  Those  very  valleys  which  they  inhabit  are  no 
other  than  a  prison  or  dungeon,  to  which  the  port  at  La  Tour 
serves  as  a  door.  To  all  this  I  must  add  that,  notwithstand- 
ing those  large  supplies  which  have  been  sent  them  from 

58  He  died  in  Germany,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty. 

30* 


I 


354  THE    WALDENSES. 

England  or  foreign  states,  yet  so  great  is  the  number  of 
hungry  creatures,  and  so  grievous  the  oppressions  of  their 
popish  enemies,  who  lie  in  wait  to  bereave  them  of  whatso- 
ever is  given  them,  and  snatch  at  every  morsel  of  meat  that 
goes  into  their  mouths,  that  verily  ever  and  anon  they  are 
ready  to  eat  their  flesh  for  want  of  bread.  The  tongue  of 
the  suckling  cleaves  to  the  roof  of  its  mouth,  and  the  young 
children  ask  bread  and  no  man  gives  it  to  them.  The  young 
and  the  old  lie  on  the  ground  in  the  streets.  Their  miseries 
are  more  sad  and  grievous  than  words  can  express  ^ — they 
are  in  a  manner  dying  whilst  they  yet  live ;  no  grapes  in 
their  vineyards  ;  no  cattle  in  their  fields ;  no  herds  in  their 
stalls ;  no  corn  in  their  garners  ;  no  meal  in  their  barrel ;  no 
oil  in  their  cruse.' 

Strong  and  glowing  as  is  this  description  of  the  ardent 
young  republican,  it  is  but  too  well  supported  by  the  facts 
which  Leger  has  detailed  in  his  admirable  history. 

The  oppression  which  followed  was  dreadful.  Cromwell 
lived  only  long  enough  to  appeal  again  to  the  Protestant 
princes,  and  to  remonstrate  with  the  duke  of  Savoy  for  his 
perfidiousness.  Soon  after  his  death  the  poor  Waldenses 
were  compelled  to  take  up  arms  again.  A  large  army  under 
the  command  of  the  Marquis  de  Fleuri,  entered  the  valleys 
in  the  year  1663.  The  war  lasted  fourteen  months,  and  was 
marked,  as  usual,  on  one  side  by  treachery  and  atrocity,  and 
on  the  other  by  heroic  courage  and  devotion.  At  length  the 
duke  was  glad  to  make  peace ;  which  he  did  under  the  pre- 
tence of  yielding  to  the  remonstrances  of  the  Protestant 
powers. 

XIV.     Last  and  most  dreadful   War. 

Twenty  years  more  of  oppression  and  suffering  passed 
away,  and  then  came  the  most  horrible  of  all  the  thirty-three  i 
wars  which  this  people,  from  first  to  last,  were  called  to  en- 


THE    LAST    WAR.  355 

counter  for  the  sake  of  their  religion.  Louis  XIV.,  having 
annihilated  Protestantism  in  France,  as  he  supposed,  and 
revoked  the  edict  of  Nantz,  as  being  no  longer  needed,  signi- 
fied his  wish  that  his  example  might  be  followed  by  his 
neighbor,  the  duke  of  Savoy.  At  that  time,  Victor  Ama- 
deus  II.,  was  on  the  ducal  throne ;  a  young  man  who  seems 
to  have  been  better  disposed  towards  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valleys  than  most  of  his  predecessors.  At  first  he  declined 
to  comply  with  the  request  of  the  French  monarch.  But 
when  the  ambassador  of  Louis  XIV.  intimated  to  him  that 
his  master  would  himself  undertake  the  expulsion  of  the 
^Valdenses,  and  keep  their  valleys  as  a  reward  for  his 
trouble,  the  duke  became  alarmed  and  set  about  the  task. 

An  edict  was  accordingly  issued,  calling  upon  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  valleys  to  abandon  their  religion,  raze  their 
churches,  give  up  their  children  to  be  baptized  and  instructed 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  priests,  send  away  their  pastors  and 
schoolmasters,  etc.  —  in  a  word,  to  become  wholly  papists. 
All  remonstrance  was  in  vain.  They  must  yield  obedience, 
or  suffer  the  consequences.  The  former  alternative  was  out 
of  the  question.  Astonished  at  their  determination  to  resist 
his  order,  the  duke  accepted  the  offer  of  a  large  auxiliary 
force  from  the  king  of  France,  commanded  by  De  Catinat. 
And  on  the  23d  of  April,  1686,  the  French  troops  attacked  the 
Waldenses  at  St.  Germain,  but  met  with  a  shameful  repulse. 
The  next  day  the  duke's  forces  were  defeated  on  the  heights 
of  Angrogna.  The  war  having  thus  auspiciously  commenced, 
it  is  unaccountable  that  the  Waldenses,  through  fear,  or  some 
other  cause,  on  the  third  day  agreed  to  lay  down  their  arms. 
This  fatal  mistake  they  discovered  when  it  was  too  late. 
Fourteen  thousand  of  them  were  thrown  into  thirteen  prisons 
in  Piedmont,  in  which,  in  the  course  of  a  few  months,  no  less 
than  eleven  thousand  died,  from  hunger,  cold,  thirst,  or  other 
causes.     Two  thousand  children  were  carried  away  by  the 


356  THE    WALDENSES. 

Catholics,  to  be  brought  up  in  their  faith.  The  valleys,  with 
all  the  goods  of  these  unfortunate  people,  were  given  up  to 
the  Roman  Catholics.  And  the  three  thousand  who  survived 
were  allowed  to  retire  to  the  Protestant  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land, which  had  sent  to  intercede  in  their  behalf  and  offer 
them  an  asylum.  They  crossed  Mount  Cenis  in  the  month 
of  December,  and  arrived  at  the  city  of  Geneva  about  Christ- 
mas. Here  they  were  received  with  the  greatest  kindness 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Calvin,  many  of  whom  came 
to  meet  them  at  the  frontier,  and  escorted  the  poor,  wretched 
exiles,  who  resembled  skeletons  rather  than  living  men,  to 
their  houses,  entertained  them  for  days,  clothed  them,  and 
conducted  them  on  their  way  to  the  Swiss  Cantons.  ^^ 

The  Swiss  received  them  with  great  affection,  and  did  the 
best  they  could  to  make  them  happy.  They  were  distributed 
chiefly  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  which  was  then,  as  she  is 
now,  by  far  the  most  powerful  of  the  entire  confederacy.  It 
was  not  long,  however,  till  these  exiles,  recruited  and 
reassured,  began  to  think  of  their  deserted  abodes  in  the 
valleys.  Nor  did  they  fail  to  make  attempts  to  return.  But 
the  first  two  were  abortive.  These  attempts  led  the  Bernese, 
through  fear  of  France  and  Savoy,  to  beg  them  to  go  into 
Germany,  where  they  were  colonized  in  Baden,  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  Brandenburg,  and  other  parts.  But  they  were 
not  long  there,  before  a  war  breaking  out  between  France 
and  the  elector  Palatine,  they  returned  to  Switzerland,  for 
fear  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  Louis  XIV.  During  the 
time  of  their  temporary  settlement  in  Germany,  the  States- 
General  of  Holland  offered  them  lands  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  appropriated  the  sum  of  thirty-nine  thousand 
livres,  to  transport  such  of  them  as  might  be  willing  to  go 
thither. 

59  Geneva  was  not  a  part  of  Switzerland  at  that  time. 


RETURN  TO  THEIR  VALLEYS.  o57 

XV.      Their  Glorious  Return  to  their  Valleys. 

Encouraged,  and  secretly  aided  even,  by  the  prince  of 
Orange,  who,  in  the  midst  of  these  events,  became  king  of 
England,  under  the  title  of  William  III.,  the  Waldenses 
made  a  third  and  successful  attempt  to  return  to  their  native 
land.  Between  eight  and  nine  hundred  men,  not  very  well 
armed,  assembled  on  the  northern  side  of  the  lake,  a  few 
miles  above  the  city  of  Geneva,  there  crossed  over  during  the 
night  of  the  16th  of  August,  1689,  and  landed  in  Savoy  be- 
tween Nernier  and  Yvoire.  The  next  day  they  set  out  in 
the  direction  of  Mont  Blanc,  ascending  in  their  way  the  val- 
ley of  the  Arve.  Henri  Arnaud,  who  had  studied  for  the 
ministry,  but  had  not  been  able  to  enter  the  sacred  office, 
owing  to  the  troubles  of  the  times,  acted  as  their  leader. 
And  certainly  he  showed  by  his  subsequent  actions,  that  he 
was  abundantly  qualified  for  the  task.  He  had  received  an 
appointment  to  a  captaincy  in  the  army  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  just  before  this  movement  took  place. 

The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  permit  us  to  go  into  the 
details  of  their  wonderful  march  through  the  Alps,  till  they 
arrived  in  their  OAvn  country,  which  was  eiFected  with  a  loss 
that  was  wholly  inconsiderable.  This  they  were  enabled  to 
do,  by  seizing,  as  they  went  along,  a  number  of  persons  of 
distinction,  from  time  to  time,  and  threatening  to  kill  them,  if 
the  Savoyards  did  not  let  them  pass  unmolested.  In  this 
way,  and  by  paying  for  whatever  they  obtained  in  the  shape 
of  food  and  drink,  on  the  route,  they  got  along  better  than 
one  would  be  ready  to  anticipate.  One  severe  action  only 
they  had  to  fight  at  a  bridge,  over  the  river  Dora,  above 
Susa,  at  a  village  called  Salabertran.  There  they  found 
two  thousand  five  hundred  French  posted  on  the  opposite 
side,  under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  de  Larrey.  This 
bridge  they  carried  by  a  furious  onset,  and  soon  fought  hand 


i 


ii58  THE    WALDENSES. 

to  hand  with  their  enemies  on  the  other  side.  The  French 
were  completely  routed,  with  a  loss  of  six  hundred  men; 
whilst  the  Waldenses  lost  but  fifteen  killed,  and  twelve 
wounded.  After  this  they  reached  their  country  without 
meeting  any  opposition  worthy  of  mention.  They  crossed 
the  Col  du  Pis  and  the  Col  de  Damian,  and  descended  into 
the  valley  of  St.  Martin,  and  reached  Macel  on  the  night  of 
the  27th  of  August.  The  next  day  they  marched  to  Prali, 
where  they  spent  the  first  Sabbath  in  their  native  land,  and 
where  Arnaud  preached  under  circumstances  which  we  have 
already  related. 

But  soon  their  enemies  pursued  them  into  these  valleys, 
and  skirmish  after  skirmish  took  place  ■ —  at  one  time  in  the 
valley  of  Luserne,  at  another  in  the  valley  of  Angrogna,  and 
at  another  in  that  of  St.  Martin.  They  were  greatly  in 
danger  of  starving  during  the  winter ;  but  they  found  wheat 
and  chestnuts  lying  under  the  snow,  which  had  fallen  that 
year,  in  the  good  providence  of  God,  much  earlier  than  is 
usual.  The  most  famous  of  all  their  actions  was  the  siege 
which  they  sustained  for  months,  at  Balsi,  a  steep  mass  of 
rocks,  rising  by  three  terraces,  above  the  two  torrents  which 
meet  just  beneath,  and  which  stands  in  the  angle  which  they 
make.  This  place  could  only  be  approached  by  ascending 
the  river,  and  this  was  extremely  difficult.  And  when  this 
was  done,  it  could  only  be  attacked  by  cannon.  At  last,  their 
enemies,  who  were  ten  thousand  French  and  twelve  thousand 
Savoyards,  —  but  who  could  not  all,  however,  have  been 
concentrated  at  that  spot,  though  a  great  force  waS' — suc- 
ceeded in  compelling  them  to  abandon  the  place.  This  they 
did  by  crossing  over  a  ravine  of  great  depth,  in  the  rear, 
under  the  conduct  of  a  native  of  that  region,  who  knew  well 
the  locality.  It  was  an  amazing  exploit,  which  utterly  con- 
founded their  enemies. 

But  what  need  is  there  of  words  ?     They  made  their  way 


ANALOGIES    IN    THEIR    HISTORY.  359 

bj  Prali  again,  to  the  valley  of  Angrogna,  where,  to  their 
very  great  joy,  they  met  envoys  from  the  Baron  de  Palavi- 
cino,  who  had  come  to  announce  to  them  peace  upon  the  part 
of  the  duke  of  Savoy.  In  the  wonderful  providence  of  God, 
a  rupture  had  just  occurred  between  Savoy  and  France,  so 
that  the  alliance  which  had  been  the  cause  of  this  calamitous 
war  was  at  an  end,  and  the  AYaldenses  were  saved.  The 
duke  seemed  to  be  sensible  that  he  had  done  wrong,  and  was 
disposed  to  do  all  that  he  could  to  assure  them  of  his  good-will. 
They  were  now  restored  to  their  native  valleys,  and  cheerfully 
went  to  work  to  cultivate  their  little  farms,  and  tried,  in  the 
joys  of  the  present,  to  forget  the  sorrows  of  the  past.  And 
no  sooner  did  the  duke  of  Savoy  ask  their  assistance,  in  the 
long  war  which  he  was  compelled  to  carry  on  against  the 
French,  than  they  cheerfully  rendered  it.  And  such  were 
their  bravery  and  fidelity,  that  not  only  did  they  often  gain 
the  applause  of  their  native  prince,  ^  but  also  that  of  Prince 
Eugene,  who  came  with  a  powerful  force,  to  compel  the 
French  to  raise  the  siege  of  Turin,  and  to  quit  Piedmont. 

XVI.     Striking  Analogies  iii  their  History. 

Several  authors  have  remarked  upon  the  striking  analogy 
between  the  events  just  related  and  the  conquest  of  the  Jews 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes ;  its  cause  —  their  attachment  to 
the  true  religion  —  their  expulsion  from  their  country  — 
'  many  of  the  Jews  went  down  into  the  wilderness  to  dwell 
there '  —  their  return  and  recovery  of  their  land  under  the 
conduct  of  the  Maccabees.  It  is  a  striking  coincidence  that  in 
both  cases  the  term  of  the  '  abomination  of  desolation '  was 
precisely  the  same  —  three  years  and  a  half.  The  aim  was 
the  same  —  the  enforcement  of  a  base  idolatry  upon  simple- 


60  It  was  ill  the  year  1706,  that  Victor  Amadeus  11.,  the  duke  above  spoken  of,  was 
compelled  to  seek  a  refuge  among  the  Waklenses  in  the  valley  of  Rosa,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  whilst  Turin  was  besieged  by  the  French. 


SbO  THE    WALDENSES, 

hearted  worshippers  of  the  true  God.  And  the  same 
infernal  spirit  actuated  the  enemies  of  God  and  his  people 
in  both  cases. 

Other  writers  have  discovered  in  the  conquest  of  these  | 
valleys  by  the  Roman  Catholic  rulers  of  France  and  Savoy, 
and,  in  the  banishment  of  the  handful  of  survivors,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  proj^hecy  in  the  Apocalypse,  respecting  the  slaying 
of  the  two  witnesses  who  had  long  prophesied  in  sackcloth, 
and  their  death  during  three  days  and  a  half.  The  parallel  is 
very  striking.  Nor  is  it  a  valid  objection,  to  our  minds,  that 
the  Waldenses  were  but  one  people  at  that  time,  for  it  is 
very  certain  that  a  large  portion  of  them  were  descended 
from  the  Albigenses,  who  took  refuge  among  them  after  the 
destruction  of  that  branch  of  the  witnesses  for  the  truth  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  It  is  much  more  difficult,  however, 
to  make  it  appear  that  the  Waldenses  could  have  been 
typified  by  the  witnesses  who  prophesied  in  sackcloth  during 
a  period  of  twelve  hundred  and  sixty  years,  for  this  would 
carry  us  back  to  A.  D.  426,  when  papal  oppression  had  not 
commenced,  though  the  reign  of  gross  error  and  superstition 
undoubtedly  had. 

XVII.      Unicorthy   Conduct  of  Victor  Amadeus  at  the  last. 

After  what  has  been  said  of  the  gallant  services  which 
they  rendered  to  the  very  prince  who  had  persecuted  them 
so  much,  and  after  having  been  treated  by  him  for  years  with 
kindness,  one  might  suppose  that  the  Waldenses  would  have 
enjoyed  tranquillity  at  least  during  the  remainder  of  that 
prince's  reign.  But  no;  to  do  justice  to  these,  their  poor, 
oppressed  subjects,  does  not  seem  to  be  possible  for  any  of 
the  weak,  and  bigoted,  and  priest-ridden  House  of  Savoy,  — 
now  the  royal  House  of  Sardinia.  Victor  Amadeus  II., 
about  1726,  two  years  before  his  abdication,  caused  the 
governor  of  Pignerol  to  receive  the  oath  of  allegiance  from 


UNWORTHY    CONDUCT    OF    VICTOR   AMADEUS.  361 

these  faithful  inhabitants  of  the  valleys,  and  promised  them 
security  in  their  possessions.  And  yet  at  the  same  time  he 
diminished  their  territory  by  taking  away  the  valley  of 
Pragela  from  them,^^  and  gave  an  order  for  all  who  were 
not  born  in  the  valleys  to  quit  them  forever.  This  caused 
three  thousand  Protestant  French  and  Swiss  w^ho  had  been 
living  among  the  Waldenses,  some  of  them  nearly  forty  years, 
to  retire  to  Switzerland/^  and  afterwards  to  Germany,  w^here 
they  settled  in  what  are  now  the  duchies  of  Baden  and  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  and  the  kingdom  of  Wurteraburg.  For  several 
years  there  were  fifteen  churches  of  them,  and  as  many  pas- 
tors, who  formed  a  synod.  Seven  of  the  pastors  and  a3 
many  schoolmasters  were  paid  by  the  British  government; 
four  received  salaries  from  the  government  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  Holland ;  and  the  remaining  three  from  their 
princes  and  flocks.  But  these  Waldensian  colonies  have 
long  since  become  merged  in  the  native  population  of  those 
countries.  Nevertheless,  there  are  thousands  of  people  in 
Germany  to  this  day  who  can  trace  their  origin  to  Walden- 
sian ancestors. 


61  '  In  this  valley,'  said  Perrin,  in  the  year  1618,  in  a  work  entitled  Luther'^s  Fore- 
runners, '  there  are  at  this  day  six  goodly  churches,  every  one  having  iheir  pastor^ 
and  every  pastor  having  divers  villages,  all  filled  with  those  who  have  descended 
from  the  ancient  Waldenses.  They  have  been  churches  truly  Protestant,  lime  out 
of  mind.  Their  old  people  (and  some  are  about  a  hundred  years  old)  have  never 
heard,  from  iheir  fathers  or  grandfathers,  that  mass  was  ever  sung  in  their  coun- 
try. A\h\  though  perhaps  the  archbishop  of  Turin  may  have  caused  it  to  be  sung  in 
the  said  valley,  the  inhabitants  have  no  knowledge  of  it,  and  there  is  not  any 
amongst  them  that  makes  profession  of  any  other  faith,  or  belief,  than  the  Confes- 
sion of  which  we  have  been  speaking'  Widely  different  is  the  state  of  things  ia 
that  valley  now!  For  there  is  not  one  person  in  it  at  present  who  dares  refuse 
to  attend  mass. 

62  The  meanness  of  the  government  of  Savoy  followed  them  on  the  route.  The 
duke  h;id  given  them  an  order  on  the  commissariat  for  bread  ;  but  a  courier  over- 
took the  miserable  fugitives  on  Mont  Cenis,  and,  under  the  pretence  that  somethingr 
was  wrong  in  the  form  of  the  order,  got  it  from  them,  and  carried  it  back  to  Turin, 
leaving  them  to  make  their  way  as  best  they  could,  through  Savoy,  to  Switzerland^ 
without  bread. 

31 


362  THE    WALDENSES. 

XVIIL     Subsequent  History  of  the  Waldenses. 

From  this  time  to  the  conquest  of  Italy  by  the  French, 
in  the  years  1796,  97,  the  only  distinguishable  features  in  the 
Waldensian  history  are,  as  has  been  well  remarked  by  one 
who  has  written  two  very  interesting  works  respecting  them, 
'  resignation  to  an  oppressive  government,  and  adherence  to 
their  faith,  and  to  the  practice  inculcated  by  it.'  ^ 

During  the  times  of  the  Directory  of  France  and  the 
reign  of  Napoleon,  the  conduct  of  the  Waldenses  was  remark- 
able. Faithful  to  the  fortunes  of  the  falling  royal  house  of 
Sardinia,  notwithstanding  all  the  evils  they  had  endured  from 
it  during  a  period  of  four  hundred  years,  they  rallied  around 
its  standard  as  long  as  it  floated  on  the  Superga.  And  when 
Bonaparte  annexed  Piedmont  to  France,  a  gleam  of  pros- 
perity passed  over  their  valleys,  for  they  were  put  in 
possession  of  all  their  civil  rights ;  the  maintenance  of  the 
Romish  clergy,  in  communes  where  there  were  but  few 
Romanists,  was  abolished  ;  and  the  Protestant  pastors  were 
enrolled  with  those  of  France ;  and  lands,  yielding  fourteen 
hundred  francs  annually,  were  allotted  to  each.  For  this  they 
were  grateful,  and  rendered  that  obedience  which  their 
religion  teaches  them  to  yield  to  the  powers  that  be.  Their 
country  being  often  overrun  by  hostile  armies  during  this 
period,  the  Waldenses  gained  the  warmest  praise,  not  only 
from  the  Sardinian  monarch  and  his  allies  —  the  Russians 
and  Austrians  —  but  also  from  the  French.  Indeed  Suchet 
a  French  general,  extolled  their  conduct  greatly,  in  a  bul- 
letin which  he  issued  on  the  24th  of  December,  1799.  And 
well  he  might.  The  Waldenses  treated  with  equal  kindnes 
the  wounded  of  both  the  French  and  their  enemies.  On  the 
occasion  just  referred  to,  they  carried  on  their  shoulders, 

63  Sir  Hugh  Dyke  Acland,  in  his  translation  of  the  Glorieuse  Rentree,  p.  210. 


SUBSEQUENT   HISTORY.  363 

three  hundred  wounded  French  soldiers  in  litters,  across  the 
Alps,  from  Bobi  to  Briancon,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  because 
of  the  absolute  want  of  provisions  to  sustain  themselves  and 
these  wounded  persons  in  their  valleys.  It  was  this  difficult 
and  most  humane  action,  that  called  forth  the  praise  of 
Suchet,  And  yet  this  very  action  was  attributed,  by  their 
enemies  among  the  Piedmontese,  to  partiality  to  the  French ! 
In  the  year  1794,  the  Roman  Catholic  curate  at  La  Tour, 
and  other  fanatics,  brought  a  similar  charge  against  these 
people,  when  fort  Mirabouc  was  captured  by  the  French, 
through  the  treachery  of  the  commanding  officer.  The 
blame  was  laid  at  the  door  of  the  Waldenses,  although  there 
was  but  one  of  their  men  in  the  garrison,  and  he,  it  was 
afterwards  proved,  protested  against  the  conduct  of  the  com- 
mandant in  surrendering  the  place !  But  it  mattered  not, 
A  plot  was  laid  for  the  destruction  of  La  Tour,  St.  Jean, 
Villar,  and  other  villages.  Eight  hundred  men  were  engaged 
to  massacre  all  the  inhabitants  of  those  places,  on  the  night 
of  the  15th  of  May,  whilst  the  flower  of  the  population  were 
employed  in  defending  the  frontier  against  the  French.  To 
the  honor  of  M.  Brianza,  the  Roman  Catholic  curate  of 
Luserne,  it  ought  to  be  said,  that,  the  moment  he  heard  of  it, 
which  was  only  on  the  morning  of  the  very  day  before  the 
time  appointed  for  its  execution,  he  hastened  to  inform  the 
inhabitants  of  the  devoted  places.  Captain  Odetti,  also  a 
Romanist,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  conspiracy,  hastened  to 
La  Tour,  and  pledged  the  last  drop  of  his  blood,  in  the 
defence  of  its  inhabitants.  By  the  arrival  of  General  Godin, 
a  Swiss  officer  commanding  the  troops  on  the  frontier,  to 
whom  fifteen  couriers  had  been  despatched  in  the  course  of 
the  day,  but  who  could  not,  until  the  last  moment,  be  made  to 
believe  the  horrible  story  —  the  plot  was  defeated.  And  yet 
its  authors  were  never  so  much  as  arrested  even  —  to  say 
nothing  of  their  being  punished. 


364  THE    WALDENSES. 

Upon  tlie  downfall  of  Napoleon,  in  1814,  the  king  of 
Sardinia  recovered  his  ancient  dominion,  and  none  of  his 
former  subjects  gave  him  a  more  cordial  welcome  than  the 
Waldenses,  though  they  had  good  reason  to  fear  the  change. 
They  respectfully  and  loyally  implored  his  protection.  Lord 
William  Bentinck,  the  commander  of  the  British  forces  in 
Italy,  also  interfered  in  their  behalf;  but  it  was  in  vain. 
The  congress  of  Vienna  made  no  effectual  provision  for  the 
protection  of  these  people  in  their  rights.  Lord  Castlereagh, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  look  after  this  matter,  was  wholly  indif- 
ferent to  it.  He  did  not  even  return  an  answer  to  the 
address  of  the  deputy  whom  they  sent  to  Vienna.  ^ 

The  consequence  was,  what  had  been  foreseen  and  feared 
by  many,  the  ancient  dynasty  brought  back  all  its  bigotry,  its 
subserviency  to  Rome,  and  its  injustice  towards  the  poor 
Waldenses.  And  though  no  persecution  has  taken  place,  yet 
there  has  been  no  year  since,  in  which  these  people  have  not 
been  oppressed  in  one  way  or  another.  At  this  moment, 
they  are  not  allowed  to  acquire  or  hold  property  beyond  the 
ancient  limits;  they  are  prohibited  from  being  physicians^ 
surgeons,  and  advocates,  though  they  may  be  apothecaries 
and  counsellors  in  their  own  valleys ;  they  are  forced  to  serve 
as  soldiers,  and  about  forty  of  their  young  men  enter  the 
army  as  conscripts  every  year,  but  they  cannot  rise  above  the 
rank  of  serjeant;  they  are  not  allowed  to  w^ork  on  the 
Romish  holydays  ;  their  pastors,  instead  of  receiving  fourteen 


64  It  is  hard  to  know  what  to  think  of  Lord  Castlereagh.  Whether  from  a  want  of 
principle  or  want  of  sense,  he  seemed  to  neglect  not  only  ihe  interests  of  humanity, 
but  even  those  of  his  own  country,  -  as  in  the  case  of  Java  —  to  a  greater  degree 
than  any  other  British  minister  of  modern  times.  The  conduct  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander,  in  reference  to  the  Waldensian  deputy  who  appeared  at  Vienna,  was 
very  difterent.  He  heard  with  tears  the  simple  statement  which  he  gave,  and  in- 
stamly  contributed  twelve  thousand  francs,  to  be  applied  towards  a  hospital,  and 
the  rebuilding  of  a  dilapidated  church,  though  he  was  a  member  of  a  communion 
which  diflers  very  much  in  riles,  and  even  in  doctrines,  from  that  of  the  Wal- 
denses. 


RENEWED    INTEREST   IN    THEIR    BEHALF.  365 

hundred  francs  each  from  the  government,  as  in  Napoleon's 
time,  receive  but  five  hundred,  and  that  by  means  of  a  tax 
levied  upon  their  people  ;  ^^  they  may  build  neither  churches 
nor  parsonages  without  special  permission,  and  this  it  is  often 
difficult  to  obtain ;  they  are  not  allowed  to  have  a  printing- 
press  in  their  valleys,  nor  to  print  any  thing  within  the  king- 
dom, whilst  the  duties  on  books  from  abroad  are  enormous ; 
they  cannot  prevent  a  Catholic  priest  from  coming  into  their 
houses,  and  trying  to  convert  their  children,  if  the  boys  have 
reached  twelve,  and  the  girls  ten  years  of  age ;  they  can  buy 
no  land  from  a  Catholic  living  in  the  midst  of  them,  though 
the  Catholics  may  buy  theirs  ;  it  is  death  for  them  to  attempt 
to  proselyte  a  Catholic,  though  every  encouragement  is  held 
out  for  their  conversion  to  Romanism ;  and,  lastly,  they  are  not 
allowed  to  intermarry  with  the  Roman  Catholics. 

XIX.     Renewed  Interest  felt  in  their  Behalf. 

For  a  long  time  the  Waldenses  were  almost  lost  sight  of 
by  their  Protestant  brethren.  But  as  soon  as  the  long  storm 
of  war  which  had  spread  its  devastations  over  Europe  for 
more  than  twenty  years  was  passed  away,  and  general  peace 
restored,  upon  the  final  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  English 
Christians,  in  their  visits  to  the  continent,  began  to  make 
their  way  to  Italy,  and  some  of  them  turned  aside  to  see 
what  had  become  of  the  '  church  in  the  wilderness,'  and 
which  they  found,  like  the  bush  that  Moses  saw  in  the  midst 
of  the  flames,  in  Mount  Horeb,  '  was  not  consumed.'  Among 
these,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Gilly,  now  a  prebendary  of  Durham, 
Rev.  Mr.  Sims,  and  Sir  Hugh  Dyke  Acland,  may  be  men- 
tioned, as  those  who  have  called  the  attention  of  the  British 
Christian  public  strongly  to  the  state  of  that  people.     Dr. 


<>5  But  this  is  not  the  worst  of  it ;  the  government  lays  a  tax  far  beyond  that 
amount,  and  keeps  the  residue  !  So  that  the  poor  people  lose,  instead  of  gaining, 
by  the  government  provision. 

31* 


366  THE    WALDENSES. 

Crilly,  in  particular,  by  a  work  which  he  published,  in  1823, 
■created  a  great  interest  in  behalf  of  this  body  of  primitive 
Christians,  which  he  contributed  to  augment,  by  the  publica- 
tion  of  a  second  volume,'^  several  years  later,  in  which  he 
gave  the  results  of  observations,  made  during  a  second  tour 
in  the  valleys.     In  addition  to  these  works,  w^hich  appeared 
in  England,  several  were  published  on  the  continent,  which 
created  no  little  interest  in  Holland,  Germany,  and  Switzer- 
land.    In  consequence  of  this  revelation  of  the  state  of  things 
among  the  Waldenses,  —  their  poverty,  the  insufficient  num- 
ber and  support  of  their  pastors,  the  want  of  primary  schools, 
the  want  of  a  college,  the  want  of  a  hospital,  etc.,  —  large 
sums  were  raised  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  years  for  the  aid 
of  these  poor  people.     When  Dr.  Gilly  published  his  second 
work,  no  less  a  sum  than  one  hundred  and  five  thousand 
francs,  or  about  twenty  thousand  five  hundred  dollars,  had 
been  received  from   France,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  some  German  States,  and  which  had  been  appropriated 
to  buy  the  ground,  erect  and  furnish  a  hospital  at  La  Tour  and 
a  dispensary  at  Pomaret,  with  the  exception  of  eight  thou- 
sand francs,  which  were  funded.     In  England,  the  sum  of 
seven  thousand  three  hundred  and  two  pounds  sterling  had 
been  raised,  of  which  the  interest  was  appropriated,  as  follows : 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  the  hospital  and  dispensary, 
twenty  pounds  to  the  eilucation  of  young  men  for  the  min- 
istry, and  forty  pounds  to  the  support  of  four  girls'  schools  of 
industry.     As  to   Holland  and  Prussia,  the  sums  raised  in 
those  countries,  like  those  collected  in  England,  were  invested 
in  the  public  funds,  and  the  interest  is  annually  sent  to  the 
valleys,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  or  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  francs,  from  the  latter, 
and  two    thousand   five    hundred    francs  from    the    former. 
The  whole  income  of  the  hospital  and  dispensary,  from  all 

66  Enlitled  Waldensian  Researches;  published  in  London,  1831. 


RENEWED    INTEREST   IN    THEIR   BEHALF.  367 

sources,  (including  rent  of  tlie  estate  belonging  to  it,  etc.,)  is 
twelve  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty  francs. 

In  addition  to  this,  Mr.  Sims  obtained  considerable  sums 
for  the  establishment  of  girls'  schools  in  the  valleys,  at  his 
discretion,  and  subject  to  his  control,  and  Dr.  Gilly  the  very 
handsome  sum  of  five  thousand  pounds,  with  the  promise  of 
more,  to  found  a  college.  To  choose  the  site,  and  take  the 
requisite  measures  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  great 
object,  he  made  his  second  visit. 

Still  more.  Dr.  Gilly  and  other  friends  succeeded,  in  1827, 
in  inducing  the  British  government  to  restore  the  stipend 
which  had  been  long  paid,  with  some  pretty  serious  interrup- 
tions, for  the  support  of  thirteen  Waldensian  pastors.  The 
history  of  that  stipend  is  not  a  little  curious.  We  will  give 
it  in  few  wards. 

We  have  stated  that  Charles  II.  squandered  upon  his  pleas- 
ures the  balance,  £16,333  IO5,  3d.,  which  Cromwell  had 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  government  to  form  a  fund  for  the 
future  assistance  of  the  Waldenses.  To  replace  this,  in  part, 
and  to  efface  the  national  disgrace.  Queen  Mary,  consort  of 
William  III.,  gave,  during  her  life,  an  annual  pension  of 
£425.  After  her  death,  this  was  for  awhile  withheld.  But, 
at  the  instance  of  Archbishop  Sharpe,  it  was  renewed  and 
increased  to  £500,  by  Queen  Anne.  This  sum  was  regu- 
larly issued  from  the  British  exchequer  every  year  until 
1797,  under  the  name  of  royal  bounty.  From  that  epoch  it 
was  discontinued  for  a  period  of  thirty  years,  partly  because 
the  valleys  were  in  the  possession  of  France  during  the 
former  part  of  that  period,  and  partly  because  the  subject 
seemed  to  be  lost  sight  of  by  those  in  power,  as  well  as  by 
others,  with  the  exception  of  a  few,  who  were  unable  to 
induce  the  government  to  restore  the  annuity.  And  when  it 
was  renewed,  in  1827,  the  sum  was  reduced  to  277  pounds 
sterling,  which  amounted  to  a  little  more  than  £21  (or  523 
francs)  for  each  of  the  thirteen  pastors.     We  ought  to  add, 


368  THE   WALDENSES. 

that,  to  their  great  credit,  they  have  refused  to  receive  more 
than  300  francs  each,  and  have  devoted  the  remaining  2,900 
francs  to  the  support  of  two  more  pastors,  and  to  the  relief  of 
incapacitated  pastors,  and  the  widows  of  pastors. 

Nor  must  we  omit  to  say,  that  Colonel  Beckwith,  a  pious 
and  excellent  man,  who  was  a  distinguished  officer  in  the 
British  army  in  the  Peninsula,  and  lost  a  leg  in  the  service  of 
his  country,  has  done  much  for  these  people.  But  of  him,  and 
his  plans  of  usefulness,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  more 
fully  in  our  next  chapter. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck  with  the  fact,  that  this 
wonderful  people  have  shared  so  extensively  the  sympathy 
of  their  fellow  Protestants  of  every  land,  during  so  long  a 
period.  It  speaks  much  in  their  behalf,  as  well  as  in  behalf 
of  that  common  bond  of  charity,  which  unites  all  the  true 
followers  of  Christ,  as  well  as  all  his  churches,  in  one  body, 
of  which  He  is  the  head.  Large  sums  of  money  were  col- 
lected in  Switzerland,  Holland,  Germany,  and  England,  to 
sustain  the  poor  Waldensian  exiles  in  the  years  1686-89. 
In  England,  as  we  have  seen,  more  than  38,000  pounds  ster- 
ling were  collected  in  Cromwell's  day.  In  the  year  1768, 
£10,000  more  were  collected  in  consequence  of  a  letter  of  re- 
commendation from  the  king.  From  first  to  last,  probably, 
not  much  less  than  seventy-five  thousand  pounds  sterling 
have  been  collected  in  England,  to  sustain  these  children  of 
the  valleys.  And  certainly  it  would  not  be  out  of  the  way  to 
suppose  that  twenty-five  thousand,  —  perhaps  twice  as  much, 
—  have  been  collected  in  Switzerland,  France,  Holland, 
Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,^"  etc.  And  verily  their  debtors 
we  are  ;  for  they  maintained  the  Truth  when  all  the  rest  of 
Christendom  bowed  the  neck  to  the  papal  Antichrist. 

67  A  little  has  been  done  in  the  United  States  for  these  people.  Last  year  the 
Foreign  Evangelical  Society  sent  $300  to  furnish  libraries  for  fifteen  parishes.  It  is 
an  interesting  fact,  that  Bishop  Hobart  preached  a  sermon  in  their  behalf  to  the 
Americans  at  Rome,  when  he  was  in  that  city,  some  twenty  years  ago,  or  more. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PRESENT  STATE  OF  THE  WALDENSES  ;  THEIR  ECCLESIAS- 
TICAL ORGANIZATION  ;  THEIR  DOCTRINES  ;  THEIR  MODE 
OF    WORSHIP,    ETC. 

I.      Visit  of  the  Author  to  the    Valleys. 

Our  first  visit  to  the  valleys  inhabited  by  the  Waldenses 
was  made  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  1837.  We  had  ascended 
the  valley  of  the  Po,  from  Venice  to  Turin,  making  a  journey 
of  some  forty  or  fifty  miles  each  day,  through  one  of  the  love- 
liest scenes  in  the  world.  The  wheat  was  beginning  to  grow 
yellow  in  the  fields,  between  the  mulberry  and  other  trees, 
which  stood  in  rows  some  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  apart,  and 
were  united  by  festoons  of  grape-vines.  The  roads  were 
in  the  finest  order.  On  our  right,  in  the  distance,  the  Alps 
reared  their  lofty  summits,  and  on  the  left  the  Apennines 
raised  up  theirs,  —  both  still  mantled  with  snow  ;  whilst  the 
wide  intervening  valley  was  teeming  with  life,  and  covered 
with  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  rose,  and  other  flower-bear- 
ing shrubs  adorned  the  wayside ;  a  sky  of  the  purest  azure 
was  day  after  day  over  our  heads,  and  we  breathed  an  at- 
mosphere surpassingly  balmy  and  invigorating.  It  was  the 
season  for  the  sweet  singing  of  birds,  and  all  nature  was 
beaming  with  joy. 

We  made  but  a  short  short  stay  at  Turin  —  long  enough 
only  to  view  its  beautiful  streets,  its  magnificent  Piazza  Reale, 
its  palaces,  its  museums,  and  the  lofty  hills  which  lie  east  of 
it,  across  the  Po,  and  the  Church  of  the  Madonna  which 
crowns  the  Superga,  —  for  we  hastened  to  visit  scenes  which 


370  THE    WALDENSES. 

we  had,  from  our  earliest  years,  longed  to  behold.  "We  had 
brought  letters  from  Rome  and  Naples  which  introduced  us 
to  the  late  Count  Waldbourg-Truchsess,  then  the  ambassador 
of  Prussia  at  the  Court  of  Turin.  Through  him  we  made 
the  acquaintance  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bert,  Chaplain  of  the 
Protestant  embassies  at  that  city.  He  was  good  enough  to 
offer  to  accompany  us  to  the  valleys,  wishing  indeed  to  make 
a  visit  to  his  friends.  We  set  off  at  about  three  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  in  what  we  should  call  a  gig  or  chaise.  Our 
way  was  the  excellent  macadamized  road  that  leads  from 
Turin  to  Nice.  At  about  six  o'clock  we  reached  Pignerol,  dis- 
tant some  twenty  miles  from  Turin,  where  we  spent  a  couple 
of  hours,  to  see  the  cathedral,  the  monastery  and  convent, 
and  the  extensive  barracks  which  were  constructed  by  Louis 
XIV.,  in  one  of  whose  towers  the  '  Man  in  the  Iron  Mask,'  — 
the  object  of  so  much  curiosity  and  speculation,  —  is  said  to 
have  been  imprisoned.  After  having  made  our  tour  of  sight- 
seeing, and  taken  a  cup  of  tea  with  a  very  pleasant  Walden- 
sian  family,  the  only  one  then  living  in  the  place,  we  set  out 
for  the  valleys,  the  nearest  limit  of  which  is  not  distant  more 
than  two  miles,  if  so  much.  But  as  we  wished  to  go  to  the 
village  of  St.  Jean,  we  continued  on  the  road  from  Pignerol  to 
Nice,  some  two  or  three  miles,  as  far  as  Osasco,  where  that 
which  leads  to  the  valleys  diverges  to  the  right.  This  road 
we  pursued  to  Briqueras.  It  was  rough  enough  at  that  time, 
but  is  now  an  excellent  one,  the  Sardinian  government  hav- 
ing recently  made  a  macadamized  one  from  Osasco  to  Lu- 
serne.^^  From  Briqueras,  we  turned  off  almost  at  right 
angles,  and  followed  the  old  road  to  St.  Jean,  which  runs 
nearly  a  due  west  course.^^     At  a  short  distance  from  Bri- 

68  This  route  we  travelled  over  in  our  visit  in  1843,  it  being  but  little  out  of  the 
■way  to  pass  by  the  village  of  Luserne  to  reach, La  Tour,  whither  we  were  going. 

69  Ii  is  a  very  common  thing  for  foreign  tourists  to  describe  the  road  from  Briqueras 
to  St.  Jean  as  horrible,  and  charge  the  Sardinian  government  with  permitting  it  to  be 


VISIT    OF    THE    AUTHOR    TO    THE    VALLEYS.  371 

queras  we  entered  the  Waldensian  territory,  and  arrived 
shortly  after  ten  o'clock  at  night,  at  the  house  of  the  Rev. 
Jean  Pierre  Bonjour,  pastor  of  the  parish,  and  brother-in-law 
of  Mr.  Bert.™  Here  we  had  the  pleasure  of  finding  Colonel 
Beckwith,  who  was  making  Mr.  Bonjour's  house  his  home  at 
that  period  of  his  sojourn  in  the  valleys.  As  soon  as  supper 
was  over,  Mr.  Bert  left  us  for  the  purpose  of  going  up  to  his 
mother's,  at  the  hamlet  of  St.  Margarita,  half  a  mile  above 
the  village  of  La  Tour. 

11.      Our  Jirst  Impressions  upon  arriving  in  the  Land  of  the 
Waldenses. 

Never,  whilst  memory  lasts,  can  we  forget  the  impressions 
made  upon  our  minds  by  the  scene,  in  the  midst  of  which  we 
passed  that  night.  We  were  fairly  in  the  territory  of  that 
martyr- race,  of  whom  we  had  read  so  much  from  our  youth. 
We  were  in  a  land  where  so  many  bloody  persecutions  had 
been  endured,  through  several  centuries,  by  a  simple-hearted, 
unoffending  people,  who  had  committed  no  crimes  against  the 
state,  but  were  called  most  cruelly  to  suffer,  only  because 
they  firmly  adhered  to  the  religion  of  the  Bible,  which  they 
had  received  from  primitive   Christians.     W^e  felt  that  we 


in  that  stale  out  of  sheer  malevolence  to  the  Waldenses.  We  apprehend  that 
this  is  going  too  far.  The  road  in  question  is  bad  in  winter,  and  in  ihe  early- 
spring  and  late  autumn  ;  but  it  is  no  worse  than  tht*  neighborhood  roads  throughout 
all  Piedmont.  It  is  rough,  but  not  bad  in  the  summer.  As  to  the  government's 
making  a  macadamized  road  from  Osasco'to  Luserne,  east  and  south  of  the  Wal- 
densian territory,  instead  of  across  the  lower  part  of  it,  and  via  St.  Jean,  ihe  injus- 
tice is  very  trifling,  inasmuch  as  it  passes  so  near,  ihat  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in 
making  good  lateral  roads  from  that  territory  to  intersect  it  at  various  points.  If 
the  Sardinian  government  were  to  make  a  macadamized  road  up  into  the  very  heart 
of  these  valleys,  we  doubt  whether  the  Waldenses  ought  to  thank  them  for  it. 
Safely  to  the  morals  as  well  as  the  existence  of  these  people  is  to  be  found,  in  our 
opinion,  in  their  secluded  stale. 

70  Madame  Bonjour  had  died  but  a  few  months  previous  to  our  visit.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  the  late  excellent  moderator  Bert.  Her  two  sisters  are  also  married 
to  Waldensian  pastors.     She  was  a  most  estimable  and  pious  person. 


372  THE    WALDENSES. 

were  in  a  country,  where  every  spot  almost  is  associated  with 
some  desperate  struggle,  on  the  part  of  its  inhabitants,  to 
maintain  those  inalienable  rights  of  conscience,  which  God 
had  given  them ;  where  every  house  had  witnessed  some 
scene  of  violence,  and  of  cruelty ;  and,  in  fact,  where  almost 
every  foot  of  the  soil  had  been  steeped  in  the  blood  of  those, 
who  died  for  the  '  testimony  of  Jesus.' 

Hours  passed  away  in  converse  with  dear  brethren, 
in  relation  to  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future  of  this 
wonderful  people.  Nor  did  we  retire  to  rest  until  long  after 
midnight.  And  when  we  did,  it  was  not  to  sleep ;  for  how 
could  we  ?  We  had  come  fresh  from  the  scenes  of  Rome  and 
Naples.  We  had  just  been  standing  on  the  Tarpeian  Rock, 
we  had  been  wandering  amid  the  ruins  of  Caesar's  palace, 
the  amphitheatre  of  Flavins,  the  temple  of  Vesta,  the  villa  of 
Cicero,  the  remains  of  Pompeii,  and  of  Poestum.  But,  wdiat- 
ever  we  may  have  felt  of  varied  and  indescribable  emotion 
whilst  thinking  amidst  these  scenes  of  the  rise,  the  progress, 
and  the  fall  of  Roman  greatness  and  of  Roman  glory,  it  was 
nothing  in  comparison  with  that  which  we  felt  during  that 
night.  Till  the  morning  light  appeared,  we  could  do  nothing 
but  revolve  in  our  minds  the  history  of  these  blood-stained 
valleys.  In  the  mean  while,  the  rain  pattered  steadily  on 
the  roof  immediately  above  our  heads,  and  from  the  bough  of 
an  apple-tree  hard  by  the  window  of  our  chamber,  a  night- 
ingale sang  in  the  sweetest  manner  all  night  long. 

The  next  morning,  after  breakfast,  we  set  out  on  foo't,  with 
the  good  Colonel,  to  visit  La  Tour  and  other  places  in  these 
valleys.  Every  where  we  were  struck  with  the  simple, 
honest,  and  Christian  appearance  and  demeanor  of  those 
whom  we  met  along  the  road.  Without  one  exception, — 
and  we  remarked  the  same  thing  in  our  second  visit,  —  we 
did  not  meet  an  individual,  man,  woman,  or  child,  without 
receiving  the  kind  salutation,  —  Bon  jour — in  the  former 


VISIT    OF    THE    AUTHOR    TO    THE    VALLEYS.  373 

part  of  the  day,  and  Bon  soir,  or  Bien  hon  soir^'^  in  the  after- 
noon and  evening!:.  This  was  universal  with  the  Waldensian 
or  Protestant  population.  If  we  met  a  Roman  Catholic,  it 
was  seldom  that  he  returned  any  thing  more  than  a  sullen 
look,  to  our  civil  salutation.  We  have  no  pleasure  in  record- 
ing this  ;  we  are  simply  stating  a  fact,  and  every  foreigner 
who  has  visited  those  valleys  will  confirm  our  assertion.  Nor 
did  we  meet  a  beggar  there,  nor  in  any  of  our  subsequent 
tours  in  those  valleys,  who  was  a  Pix)testant.  The  few  we 
met  were  invariably  Roman  Catholics,  who  had  come  into 
the  valleys  from  the  country  around,  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  something  from  the  Waldenses,  or  from  strangers.  ''^ 
Nor  were  we  able  soon  to  divest  ourselves  of  the  emotions  of 
the  preceding  night.  We  felt  that  we  were  in  a  land  where, 
if  every  rock,  and  every  ancient  tree,  and  every  ancient 
house,  had  a  tongue,  it  could  tell  a  tale  such  as  none  could 
hear  unmoved.  And  never  did  we  so  fully  see  and  feel 
the  beauty  and  the  force  of  the  remark  of  the  Roman  orator : 
'  We  are  moved,  I  know  not  how,  by  the  very  places  where 
remain  the  footsteps  of  those  whom  we  either  love  or  ad- 

71  A  good  day,  a  good  evening,  a  very  good  eveiiing. 

72  We  have  stated  elsewhere,  that  the  Waldenses  were  forced  to  abandon  tha 
valley  of  Pragela,  in  the  year  1727.  They  left  behind  them,  however,  a  good 
many  Bibles,  which  were  long  preserved,  read,  and  highly  prized  by  the  inhabi- 
tants, Roman  Catholics  though  they  are.  In  the  interval  betwixt  our  first  and  second 
visits,  —  about  the  year  1840  or  '41,  —  the  priests  having  heard  of  this,  went  through 
the  villages  and  collected  all  the  Bil)les  they  could  lay  their  hands  upon,  amounting 
to  some  forty  or  fifiy,  and  bringing  ihem  together  made  a  great  bonfire  in  one  of  the 
vi-llages.  One  man,  however,  would  not  give  up  his  Biiile.  Placing  himself  in  the 
door  of  his  house,  w^iih  a  loaded  musket  in  his  hands,  he  declared  that  he  would 
shoot  the  first  man  who  should  dare  to  touch  it,  let  him  be  priest  or  any  one  else. 
This  heroic  conduct  saved  his  Bible,  though  it  greatly  irritated  the  priests.  Not  long 
afterwards,  a  fire  broke  out  in  the  village  where  the  Bible-lmrning  had  occurred, 
and  consumed  all  the  houses.  Whereupon  some  of  the  priests  made  a  lour  of 
charity  in  the  Protestant  valleys.  On  applying  to  one  of  the  Waldensian  women 
for  aid,  she  boldly  asked  them,  whether  the  fire  had  originated  in  a  spark  from  the 
bonfire  ill  which  the  Bii)les  had  been  burned?  Confounded  by  her  question,  they 
made  no  reply,  but  went  to  the  next  house. 

32 


374  THE    WALDENSES. 

mire.  Even  our  Athens  itself  does  not  so  delight  me  with 
its  magnificent  works,  and  its  exquisite  arts  of  the  ancients, 
as  by  the  remembrance  of  her  great  men,  and  the  spots 
where  each  dwelt,  sat,  and  disputed ;  I  contemplate  with 
eagerness  even  their  very  sepulchres.' ^^ 

And  splendid  as  is  the  scenery  of  these  valleys,  and  much 
as  we  have  admired  it^  we  can  say  with  truth,  that  we  have 
been  a  thousand  fold  mo-re  interested  in  traversing  this  little 
territory  with  the  view  of  finding  the  localities  where  some 
heroic  achievement  in  behalf  of  the  Truth  has  taken  place ; 
where  death  has  been  submitted  to,  rather  than  renounce  the 
glorious  gospel  for  a  heathenish  idolatry  ;  or  where,  whether 
in  the  cavern  or  on  the  mountain-side,  in  the  hour  of  peril, 
and  when  all  human  hope  was  almost  expired,  God  was 
earnestly  sought  in  agonizing  prayer,  by  the  aged,  the 
women,  and  the  children,  whilst  all,  who  were  able,  were 
engaged  in  dreadful  conflict  with  the  enemy.  Alas  !  there 
are  very  many  such  places  in  these  valleys.  There  is  hardly 
a  spot  on  or  near  which  an  intelligent  Waldensian  pastor,  or 
laic  even,  will  not  be  able  to  relate  to  you  some  thrilling 
occurrence  as  having  taken  place.  How  many  such  does 
one  find  even  in  the  comparatively  lowland  parishes  of  St. 
Jean,  Prarustin,  and  La  Tour.  Whilst  the  valley  of  Rora, 
the  upper  valley  of  Luserne,  the  valley  of  Angrogna,  and 
the  valley  of  St.  Martin,  are  full  of  them.  The  history  of 
these  valleys  is  written  on  almost  every  projecting  rock  and 
eras:  in  them. 


73  '  Movemur,  nescio  quo  pacto,  locis  ipsis,  in  quibus  eorum,  quos  diligimus  aut 
admiramur,  adsunt  vestigia.  Me  quidem  ipsae  illse  nostrse  Athense  iion  tarn  operibus 
magnificis,  exquisitisque  antiquorum  artibus  delectaiit,  quam  recordatione  summo- 
rum  virorum,  ubi  quisque  habitare,  ubi  sedere,  ubi  disputare  solitus  sit ;  studioseque 
eorum  etiam  sepulcra  contemplor.' —  Cicero,  de  Legib,  lib.  ii.  cap.  2. 


THEIR   HISTORY   APPALLING.  375 

III,     History  of  the  Waldeiises  appalling. 

In  our  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  Waldenses,  we  have 
stated  that,  from  first  to  last,  they  sustained  thirty-three  dis- 
tinct wars  during  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  ^^  Besides  all  this,  they  endured  at  least  two  cen- 
turies before  the  commencement  of  the  era  of  war,  and  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  since  its  termination,  of  oppres- 
sion, vexation,  and  petty  persecution.  Indeed,  in  some  cases, 
this  persecution  was  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  hard  to  bear  as 
open  war  itself.  Their  <  history,  as  a  community,  has  been 
wholly  without  a  parallel.  What  is  for  them  in  the  future, 
God  only  knows.  Little  by  little  the  Roman  Catholics  have 
been  increasing  among  them  for  the  last  hundred  years,  and 
every  thing  is  doing  that  is  practicable,  to  root  them  out.  To 
the  operation  of  all  these  measures  they  will  continue  to 
make  an  indomitable  resistance,  aided  by  the  sympathy  of 
the  whole  Protestant  world.  And  our  hope  is,  that  in  God's 
mercy,  the  reign  of  the  '  Man  of  Sin '  will,  before  a  very  long 
time  passes  away,  be  terminated.  At  any  rate,  we  think 
that  there  will  be  such  political  changes  in  Italy,  as  will 
bring  about  the  emancipation  of  the  Waldenses  from  the 
galling  oppression  which  they  suffer.  To  get  these  valleys 
and  the  city  of  Geneva  into  her  hands,  would  give  Rome  more 


74  And  horrible  as  have  been  some  of  the  details  we  have  given,  we  might  have 
added  many  more.  If  a  man  wishes  to  know  what  the  Waldenses  have  endured, 
he  must  read  Gilles,  Peyrani,  Leger,  Muston,  their  own  authors,  with  care ;  and 
Perrin  also,  who  was  a  Frenchman.  The  first  named  has  given  a  most  minute 
account  of  what  took  place  from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  his 
times.*  As  to  acts  of  cruelty,  they  occurred  with  such  a  frequency,  and  were  so 
atrocious,  that  one  grows  weary  of  reading  them.  There  is  not  a  village  where 
scenes  of  rapine  have  not  taken  place;  not  a  considerable  section  of  a  valley  in 
which  some  battle  did  not  occur  ;  and  not  a  cavern  to  which  the  poor  fugitives  were 
not  pursued,  and  in  many  cases,  forced  out  by  fire  and  smoke,  to  be  murdered  at 
the  entrance ! 

*  He  finished  his  work  in  1643,  and,  as  he  tells  us,  in  the  geventieth  year  of  his  age. 


376 


THE    WALDENSES. 


delight  than  any  other  conquest  she  could  make,  save  that  of 
England,  Russia,  and  these  United  States. 

IV.     Second  Visit  to  the  Valleys. 

During  our  second  visit,  in  the  summer  of  1843,  we  were 
enabled  to  see  much  more  of  the  Waldenses  and  their  interest- 
ing country,  than  we  did  in  the  spring  of  1837.  We  were  also 
so  happy  as  to  have  Mr.  Bert  with  us  again,  on  our  journey 
from  Turin  out  to  La  Tour,  as  well  as  to  see  much  of  him 
whilst  there.  We  were  enabled  to  visit  all  the  valleys,  save 
that  of  Rora,  and  had  the  pleasure  of'seeing  all  the  professors 
of  the  college  and  grammar-schools,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
pastors  of  the  churches.  In  our  various  tours,  we  also  had  the 
company  of  an  excellent  young  Waldensian,  '^^  then  as  now,  a 
student  of  theology  in  the  new  Seminary  at  Geneva,  under- 
the  care  of  Rev.  Drs.  Merle  and  Gausen,  and  the  Rev. 
Messrs.  Pilet  and  La  Harpe.  But  instead  of  giving  an 
account  of  these  tours  in  detail,  we  shall  group  together, 
under  appi'opriate  heads,  such  information  respecting  the 
state  of  religion,  morals,  education,  etc,  in  these  valleys,  as 
we  think  will  interest  the  reader, 

V.     Names  of  the  present  Pastors  and  Ministers  in  the 
Valleys  —  their  Character. 

I.  Vcdiey  of  Luserne.  Mr.  Jean  Pierre  Bonjour,  pastor  of 
the  parish,  St.  Jean ;  Mr.  Peyrot^  La  Tour ;  Mr.  Monas- 
tier,  Angrogna  ;  Mr.  Gay,  Villar  ;  Mr.  Revel,  Bobi ;  Mr. 
Rollier,  Rora. 


75  Mr.  B.  Tron,  who  will  soon  finish  his  course  of  study;  he  will  then  return  to 
his  native  valleys,  and  preach  Christ  there. 


PASTORS    AND    MINISTERS.  377 

n.     Valley  of  Perouse.     Mr.  Rostaing,  Jun.,  pastor  of  Pra- 

rustin  ;  ''^  Mr.  J.  J.  Bonjour,  Moderator,  St.  Germain  ;  Mr. 

Vinfon,  Secretary  of  the   Table,  Pramol;    Mr.    Lantaret, 

Pomaret. '"' 
III.     Valley  of  St.  Martin.     Mr.  Rostaing,  Sen.,  pastor  of 

Ville  Seche;    Mr.  Jalla,  Maneille;   Mr.  Canton,  Macel; 

Mr.  Buffa,  Rodoret ;  Mr.  Gay,  Prali. 
Chaplain  at  Turin.     Rev.  A.  Bert. 
Professors  in  the  College  at  La  Tour.     Rev.  Messrs.  Revel 

and  Malan. 
Regent  of  the  Grammar  School  at  La  Tour.    Rev.  P.  Meille. 

'Of  the  present  Vaudois  ministers,'  says  a  distinguished 
English  author,  whose  discrimination  is  well  known,  '  I  feel 
warranted  to  atiirm,  from  my  own  personal  intercourse  with 
them,  and  from  the  testimony  borne  by  themselves  mutually, 
and  by  others,  that  they  are  sound  in  the  faith ;  and  that  in 
none  of  their  pulpits  is  '  another  gospel '  to  be  heard.  They 
may  not  all  preach  the  truth  with  the  same  degree  of  clear- 
ness, or  the  same  degree  of  fidelity  in  their  discriminative 
application  of  it  to  their  hearers  ;  but  the  truth,  in  its  grand 
leading  principles,  they  do  preach,  and  thus  sustain  the  char- 
acter which  they  have  inherited  from  their  barbes,  confessors, 
and  martyrs,  whose  orthodoxy  is  beyond  dispute. 

*  With  respect  to  education,  they  will  bear  comparison  with 
the  generality  of  pastors  in  the  Lutheran,  Dutch,  and  French 
Reformed  Churches ;  and  although  they  might  not  be  able  to 
compete  with  many  who  have  distinguished  themselves  at  our 
universities,  by  the  depth  and  extent  of  their  classical  and 

76  Prarustin,  is,  we  believe,  often  placed  in  the  list  of  parishes  in  the  valley  of 
Luserne,  though,  geographically  considered,  it  is  in  that  of  Perouse. 

7^7  In  1843,  when  we  were  at  Pomaret,  the  venerable  and  excellent  Mr.  Jalla,  Sen. 
was  pastor  of  that  parish  ;  but  he  has  since  died,  and  Mr.  Lantaret,  the  regent  or 
principal  of  the  grammar-school  at  that  village,  has  been  appointed  to  his  place. 
VVho  has  succeeded  Mr.  Lantaret  in  his  former  post  we  have  not  heard. 

32* 


378  THE    WALDENSES. 

mathematical  lore ;  yet,  for  .general  information,  and  an 
acquaintance  with  the  leading  departments  of  literature,  they 
will  not  be  found  behind  the  majority  both  of  the  English 
and  Scotch  clergy.  Their  complete  isolation,  and  the  scanti- 
ness of  their  means,  necessarily  cut  them  off  from  those 
sources  of  intelligence,  which  so  plentifully  abound  in  this 
country ;  yet,  if  the  subjects  with  which  they  are  conversant 
are  more  contracted  in  their  range,  they  have  the  advantage 
of  being  more  profoundly  and  thoroughly  studied  than  it  is 
possible  for  those  to  be,  where  multiplicity  and  variety,  if  they 
do  not  bewilder,  at  least  tend  to  superinduce  roving,  super- 
ficial, and  unsatisfactory  habits  of  thought.  What  the 
Vaudois  pastors  know,  they  know  well;  and  they  require 
only  a  more  amj^le  supply  of  select  and  valuable  books,  in 
order  that  they  may,  in  some  measure,  keep  pace  with  the 
growing  intelligence  of  the  age,  and  become  the  better  pre- 
pared to  defend  the  truth  against  its  adversaries.  On  this 
subject,  the  author  of  the  'Authentic  Details '  well  remarks, 
•'It  certainly  must  be  a  severe  privation  to  them  to  be 
debarred  from  books,  and  the  means  of  pursuing  any  study 
they  like ;  none  seem  to  think  it  possible  to  buy  a  book  after 
their  return  '  from  the  academy.' '  ''^ 

To  the  above-cited  testimony  in  behalf  of  the  character 
and  attainments  of  the  Waldensian  clergy,  we  can  most  sin- 
cerely and  entirely  subscribe. 

VI.     Labors  of  the  Waldennan  Pastors.  —  Their  Style  of 
preaching. 

It  is  true,  that  for  several  centuries  the  churches  of  the 
valleys  have  ceased  to  send  forth  their  missionaries,  as  in 
days  of  old,  to  carry  the  gospel  throughout  Europe.  Several 
reasons  may  be  assigned  for  this.     One  is,  that  the  Reforma- 

78  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson,  in  his  Vaiulois^  pp.  201,  202. 


LABORS    OF    THE    PASTORS.  379 

tion  seemed  to  render  this  unnecessary,  so  far  as  Protestant 
countries  are  concerned.  Another  is,  that  this  work  became 
impossible  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  after  the  Reforma- 
tion had  run  its  career,  for  they  became  hermetically  sealed 
against  the  gospel  until  within  the  last  few  years.  This  was 
emphatically  so,  as  it  regarded  France  and  Italy,  which 
bound  the  valleys,  and  it  is  true  of  the  latter  to  this  day. 
And,  in  the  third  place,  when  the  way  did  become  open  for 
the  Waldenses  to  resume  their  missionary  labors  in  a  part  — 
and  it  was  till  very  lately  but  a  small  one  —  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  world,  various  causes,  as  we  shall  see,  had  brought 
about  a  sad  decline  of  vital  piety  in  the  churches  of  the 
valleys. 

But  if  the  pastors  of  the  Waldensian  churches  undertake 
no  distant  missionary  tours,  as  they  did  centuries  ago,  they 
have  nevertheless  much  to  do.  Their  own  country  is  in 
a  very  different  position  from  what  it  was  then.  At  that 
period  they  had  the  ground  to  themselves,  within  their  own 
limits.  Or,  if  there  were  any  Romanists  among  them,  they 
were  too  few  to  be  regarded.  It  is  far  otherwise  now ;  for 
they  have  a  numerous  body  of  enemies  of  their  Faith  in  their 
midst.  These  enemies  are  vigilant,  active,  and  zealous,  and 
have  every  advantage  in  the  work  of  proselytism.  And  it 
becomes  the  Waldensian  pastors  to  be  ever  at  their  posts, 
and  always  display  an  equal  vigilance,  lest  while  they  sleep, 
or  are  absent  from  their  work,  the  wolf  come  and  catch  the 
sheep,  and  their  flocks  be  dispersed. 

No  pastors  with  us  have  the  pastoral  care,  and  anxiety, 
and  fatigue,  that  the  little  band  of  Protestant  ministers  have 
in  those  valleys.  Some  of  them  have  under  their  charge 
many  more  souls  than  they  can  well  look  after.  Fifteen  hun- 
dred and  two  thousand  souls  are  too  many  for  any  one  man  to 
watch  over,  in  such  a  country  as  those  valleys  are.  A  thou- 
sand souls  would  be   too  many,  even  in  the  parishes  of  St. 


380  THE    WALDENSES. 

Jean,  Prarustin,  and  La  Tour,  which  are  sub-mountainous 
and  comparatively  level,  small,  and  densely  populated.  But 
in  most  of  the  interior  parishes,  five  hundred  people,  scat- 
tered about  in  little  hamlets,  on  the  lofty  and  steep  sides  of 
great  mountains,  require  a  degree  of  toil  and  fatigue,  amid 
the  rigors  of  an  Alpine  winter,  which  few  men  are  able 
long  to  endure.  For  months,  during  that  inclement  season 
of  the  year,  it  is  almost  impossible,  in  the  higher  parishes,  for 
the  pastors  to  make  many  visits  to  the  distant  and  elevated 
hamlets. 

Nor  is  the  labor  much  lighter  in  those  parishes  in  the 
sunamer ;  for  then  it  is  necessary  for  the  pastors  who  have 
charge  of  them  to  go  frequently  up  into  the  elevated  alps, 
which  are  often  on  the  summits  of  very  high  mountain- 
ranges,  to  collect  the  shepherds  and  herdsmen  who  go  up 
thither  to  look  after  the  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  which  are 
driven  up  to  pasture  during  the  warm  weather.  Many  of 
the  young  men  and  young  women,  together  with  some  who 
are  older  and  have  more  experience,  are  thus  employed  from 
June  till  October.  In  the  very  hot  weather  they  go  up  to 
the  highest  points,  where  grass  in  considerable  quantities  can 
be  found.  As  the  autumn  comes  on,  the  increasing  coolness 
and  chilliness  of  the  evenings  make  both  man  and  beast  seek 
the  warmer  atmosphere  which  lies  lower  down.  And  thus 
gradually  they  descend,  till  first  frost,  and  then  snow  chases 
them  quite  down  into  the  valleys  below. 

These  persons,  who  commonly  pass  the  whole  summer  on 
the  mountains,  without  descending  more  than  once  or  twice, 
if  at  all,  occupy  small,  rude,  and  uncomfortable  houses,  which 
are  called  chalets,  commonly  of  stone.  The  women  are  there 
to  cook,  take  care  of  the  dairies,  and  some  of  the  young  and 
more  active  to  help  look  after  the  live  stock.  Now  as  they 
are  often  miles  away  from  the  nearest  church,  and  cannot  go 
down  into  the  valleys  to  hear  the  gospel,  the  pastors  must  go 


PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  381 

np  as  often  as  possible,  to  collect  them  together,  and  preach 
to  them.  There  is  special  necessity  for  this.  And  here  is 
scope  for  missionary  tours  of  great  importance  and  great 
fatigue  also.  The  scenes  which  the  preaching  of  the  gospel 
by  their  barbes,  on  the  tops  or  elevated  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains presents,  are  said  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  pic- 
turesque and  interesting.  Many  are  the  little  basins,  or 
indentations,  and  caves,  Avhich  are  consecrated  spots,  or 
bethels,  if  we  may  so  call  them,  where  the  pastors  collect  the 
scattered  members  of  their  flock  from  time  to  time,  in  the 
summer  months,  and  preach  to  them  the  words  of  eternal 
life. 

G^s  to  the  style  of  preaching  which  prevails  in  these 
valleys,  it  is  simple,  aiFectionate,  and  persuasive,  rather  than 
very  powerful  and  exciting.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some 
ministers  among  them  wdio  have  energy  enough.  They  com- 
monly write  their  sermons  and  commit  them  to  memory.  In 
no  case  do  they  read  their  discourses ;  to  this  the  people  are 
strongly  and  universally  opposed.) 

VII.     Mode  of  conducting  PuhUc    Worship  in  the  Churches 
of  the  Valleys. 

Almost  invariably  the  mode  of  conducting  public  worship 
is  this :  the  regent,  or  teacher  of  the  chief  parish  school, 
which  is  always  held  in  the  village  where  the  church  of  the 
parish  stands,  commences  the  service  by  reading  two  or  three 
chapters  from  Ostervald's  French  Bible.  At  the  end  of  each, 
he  reads  the  practical  observations  which  are  contained  in 
the  old  folio  edition  of  that  excellent  translation.  After 
half  an  hour  has  been  spent  in  that  way,  and  when  the 
people  are  well  assembled,  the  pastor  ascends  the  pulpit,  and 
commences  with  a  short  invocation  of  the  divine  blessing, 
according  to  words  of  the  Liturgy  which  is  in  use  in  the  Wal- 


382  THE    WALDENSES. 

densian  churches.  ^^  After  this  he  calls  upon  the  people  to 
listen  with  attention  to  the  Ten  Commandments  and  the  sum- 
mary thereof  given  by  the  Saviour.  Then  follows  what  is 
called  the  *  confession  of  sins,'  which  is  the  same  that  is  found 
in  the  liturgies  of  the  French  and  Swiss  churches.  Next 
follows  the  singing  of  a  psalm,  in  which  the  whole  congrega- 
tion join.  A  prayer  of  considerable  length  succeeds,  taken 
from  the  liturgy  commonly,  though  it  is  optional  with  the 
pastors,  as  it  is  with  those  in  France  and  Switzerland,  to 
make  an  extemporaneous  prayer  in  place  of  the  one  in  the 
book,  if  they  prefer  to  do  so.  Then  comes  the  sermon ; 
which  is  followed  by  the  singing  of  a  psalm  or  hymn.  Next 
there  is  a  prayer  from  the  liturgy,  which  is  pretty  rigidly 
adhered  to.  This  prayer  embraces  the  petitions  for  the  king, 
royal  family,  government,  church  universal,  and  their  own 
churches  in  particular,  the  afflicted,  etc.  etc.  This  prayer  is 
followed  by  the  recital  of  the  Lord's  prayer,  and  the  Apos- 
tles' creed.  A  few  verses  are  then  sung  and  the  Aaronic 
benediction  is  pronounced. 

When  the  rite  of  baptism  is  to  be  administered,  it  imme- 
diately follows  the  sermon.  When  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
celebrated,  it  likewise  follows  the  sermon  in  the  forenoon. 
For  both  these  occasions  there  are  special  and  appropriate 
prayers  in  the  liturgy. 

In  administering  baptism,  the  minister,  after  a  special 
prayer  for  the  occasion,  and  an  address  to  the  parents,  or 
those  who  present  the  child,  descends  from  the  pulpit,  places 
his  hands  together,  into  which  some  one  present  pours  water 
from  a  vial  or  small  bottle,  which  he  in  turn  pours  upon  the 
child,  pronouncing  at  the  same  time  its  name,  and  repeating 
the  words  of  the  institution :    '  I  baptize  thee,  in  the  name  of 


79  This  invocation  is  in  these  words  :  '  Notre  aide  soit  au  nora  de  Dieu,  qui  a  fait 
Je  ciel  etlaterre.    Amen!' 


WALDENSIAN    LITURGY.  383 

the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost.'  The  whole  form, 
phraseology,  etc.,  is  exactly  like  what  exists  in  our  Presby- 
terian and  Congregational  churches. 

As  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  pastor  reads,  after  the  sermon, 
which  always  relates  to  the  ordinance,  the  words  of  the  insti- 
tution in  1  Corinthians,  11 :  and  then  proceeds  to  do  what  is 
called,  in  the  Scottish  churches,  '  fencing  the  tables,'  namely  : 
to  describe  the  character  of  those  who  are  unworthy  to  par- 
take of  the  ordinance,  and  exhort  all  to  a  proper  self- 
examination.  A  special  prayer  is  then  offered,  after  which 
the  congregation  sing  a  hymn.  A  brief  exhortation  follows, 
and  then  a  hymn.  The  minister  then  comes  down  from 
the  pulpit,  and  proceeds  to  the  administration  of  the  ordi- 
nance. The  pastor,  after  a  suitable  prayer  from  the  lit- 
urgy, first  partakes  of  the  elements,  and  then  the  elders,  who 
are  all  seated  around  him  in  the  large  square  pew  below 
the  pulpit.  After  which,  the  members  of  the  church  come 
forward,  two  by  two,  the  men  first,  and  then  the  women. 
Whilst  presenting  the  communicants  with  the  elements,  the 
pastor  repeats  to  them  appropriate  texts  of  Scripture ;  in  the 
mean  while  the  congregation  continues  to  sing  hymns  adapted 
to  the  occasion.  A  contribution  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  is 
made  by  each  communicant.  The  minister  then  ascends  the 
pulpit,  and  concludes  with  a  short  exhortation,  thanksgiving, 
and  benediction. 

VIII.     Liturgy  of  the  Waldensian  Churches. 

The  liturgy  which  is  at  present  used  in  the  churches  of 
the  valleys,  was  adopted  by  the  synod  at  its  sessions  in  the 
year  1839.  It  is  a  volume  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-nine 
pages  duodecimo,  and  was  printed  at  Lausanne,  in  1842.  It 
is  a  collection  of  prayers  for  public  and  private  use,  and 
suited  to  every  variety  of  occasion,  as  well  as  to  all  classes  of 
individuals.     There  are  prayers  to  be  used  in  the  family  and 


384  THE    WALDENSES. 

in  the  closet,  for  every  morning  and  evening  of  the  week. 
There  are  forms  of  prayer  and  thanksgiving  to  be  used 
before  and  after  meals.  And  at  the  close,  there  is  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  made  by  these  churclies  in  the  year  1G55  ; 
the  Lord's  Prayer ;  and  the  Apostles'  creed. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  present  liturgy,  the  Wal- 
densian  churches  were  in  the  habit  of  using  those  of  the 
Protestant  churches  of  Switzerland.  It  was  natural  that 
they  should  do  so.  Having  no  theological  school  of  their 
own  for  more  than  three  hundred  years  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, nor  even  a  college,  they  were  compelled  to  send  their 
young  men  to  Lausanne  and  Geneva  for  their  education.  In 
this  way  relations  of  the  strictest  friendship  and  great  inti- 
macy, sprang  up  between  the  'Evangelical  Church  of  the 
Valleys '  and  the  Protestant  churches  of  Switzerland ;  and  it 
is  not  at  all  extraordinary  that  the  Swiss  liturgies  should  gain 
currency  in  the  churches  of  the  Waldenses. 

It  contributed  greatly  to  this  result,  that  the  Waldenses, 
having  lost  by  the  plague,  which  prevailed  so  extensively  in 
Italy  in  the  year  1630,  no  less  than  thirteen  out  of  their 
fifteen  pastors,  had  to  look  to  Switzerland  and  France  for 
Protestant  ministers  to  take  their  place.  From  that  day  the 
French  language  has  been  used  instead  of  the  patois,  or  dialect, 
in  which  the  services  had  previously  been,  in  the  main, 
conducted. 

When  we  were  in  the  valleys  in  the  year  1837,  we  found 
the  Genevan  liturgy  ^  used  by  seven  of  the  pastors,  that  of 
Neuchfitel  by  six,  and  that  of  Lausanne  by  two.  There 
was  no  rule  in  relation  to  this  matter.  And  sometimes  a 
pastor  used  one  or  the  other  of  two  liturgies,  just  as  it  pleased 
his  fancy.     Sometimes  the  schoolmaster,  in  conducting  the 

80  It  was  the  old  Genevan  liturgy  -which  the  churches  in  the  valleys  used,  of  the 
edition  of  1754  ;  and  not  the  mutilated,  socinianized  modern  one,  which  the  '  Ven- 
erable Company  of  Pastors  '  put  forth,  in  1817. 


WALDENSIAN    LITURGY.  385 

public  prayers,  used  a  liturgy  different  from  that  of  the 
pastor.  Now  although  these  different  liturgies  were  the 
same  in  the  order  of  the  services,  and  almost  the  very  same 
in  detail  and  phraseology,  yet  there  was  manifest  inconve- 
nience in  this  state  of  things.  This  led  the  synod  to  order  a 
new  liturgy  to  be  formed,  which  should  take  the  place  of  all 
the  others.  This  liturgy  is  wholly  made  up  of  selections 
from  the  three  in  former  use,  and  is  very  simple,  appropriate, 
and  beautiful.  ^^  We  think  that  a  liturgy,  to  be  useful  and 
safe  in  the  public  worship  of  God,  should  be  short,  simple, 
and  not  wholly  supplant  extemporaneous  prayer.  We  have 
ever  admired  the  liturgies  of  the  French  and  Swiss  Protest- 
ant churches,  and  the  judicious  and  limited  extent  to  which 
the  prayers,  which  they  contain,  are  used  in  the  public 
service. 

That  the  churches  in  the  valleys  used  a  liturgy  before  they 
knew  any  thing  of  the  Protestant  churches  of  Switzerland, 
we  think,  with  Drs.  Gilly  and  Henderson,  is  altogether 
probable.  *^ 

81  Some  years  ago,  quite  a  number  of  copies  of  the  Prayer  Book  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  England,  in  French,  were  sent  to  the  valleys  for  distribution  ;  but 
not  being  approved  by  the  Table,  they  were  never  introduced  into  the  churches  , 
Dr.  Gilly,  in  1829,  made  a  formal  proposal  for  the  compilation  of  a  liturgy,  to  be 
formed,  in  part  at  least,  after  the  model  of  that  of  the  Church  of  England.*'  In  con- 
sequence of  this,  a  commission  was  appointed  to  execute  the  task.  And  in  1839, 
the  liturgy  wiiich  had  been  prepared  was  approved  by  the  synod,  and  ordered  to  be 
adopted  and  used  by  the  churches.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  part  of  the  English 
liturgy  was  introduced  into  it ;  nor  does  it  appear  that  the  platform  which  it  ex- 
hibits was  taken  for  a  model.  The  advertisement  prefixed,  states  that  it  is  a  collec- 
tion of  prayers  extracted  from  the  Swiss  liturgies  which  had  formerly,  and  for  a 
long  time,  been  in  use  in  the  valleys. 

*  Waldemian  Researches,  p  385. 

83  See  Dr.  Gilly's  Waldensian  Researches,  chap.  iii.  pp.  215-229;  and  Dr.  Hender- 
son's VaurJoiSy  pp.  222,  223. 

In  speaking  of  what  he  had  seen  in  the  library  of  Geneva,  an  English  writer 
says :  '  In  addition  to  these  MSS.,  there  is  a  short  liturgy  in  the  Vaudois  dialect,  a 
small  octavo  on  vellum,  hound  in  crimson  velvet.  I  saw  it,  and  thought  it  quite 
complete.'    Jackson's  Remarks  on  the  Vaudois  of  Piedmont.     Appendix,  p.  276. 

33 


386  THE    WALDENSES. 

We  will  only  remark  further  respecting  the  liturgy  now  in 
use  in  the  Waldensian  churches,  as  well  as  the  Swiss  liturgies 
which  preceded  it,  that  there  are  no  remains  of  Romanism 
in  them.  They  were  not  fashioned  after  the  model  of  the 
liturgy  of  the  Latin  Church,  much  less  are  they  a  translation 
of  that  liturgy,  with  some  omissions  of  the  grosser  parts  of 
it.  But  they  are  wholly  modern,  Protestant,  scriptural,  and 
simple.  They  contain  no  vain  repetitions ;  no  responses  on 
the  part  of  the  people.  They  are,  in  a  word,  nothing  but  a 
collection  of  appropriate  prayers,  very  much  such  as  every 
well-educated  minister  in  those  of  our  churches  which 
employ  no  liturgy,  would  make  in  public  worship,  or  such 
as  we  suppose  he  would  write  if  he  were  to  sit  down  to  -the 
task. 

IX.     Polity  of  the  Evangelical  Church  of  the  Valleys.  ^ 

That  the  constitution  of  the  Waldensian  Church  comes 
nearer  to  the  Presbyterian  polity  than  to  any  other  now  in 
existence,  will  be  conceded  by  all  who  will  examine  it  for  a 
moment.     We  will  give  its  outlines. 

In  the  first  place  there  is  a  court  called  the  Consistory,  in 
each  church,  consisting  of  the  pastor,  elders,  one  or  more 
deacons,  and  a  legal  adviser.  The  elders  are  nominated  by 
the  public  votes  of  the  parishioners,  taken  in  the  several 
hamlets  or  quarters  of  the  parish ;  and  from  the  names  thus 
presented  to  them,  the  consistory  selects  the  number  re- 
quired. No  one  is  eligible  to  that  office,  who  keeps  a  public 
house,  or  depends  on  charity  for  his  maintenance.  The 
elders  are  installed,  after  the  sermon  in  the  church,  and  have 
a  charge  given  them  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the  flock, 
especially  in  the  quarter  where  they  live  ;  to  aid  the  pastor 

83  This  is  the  proper  title  of  the  churches  of  the  Waldenses.  They  disclaim  the 
name  of  Protestant^  for  they  say  they  never  came  out  from  Rome,  inasmuch  as  thej 
never  were  in  Rome.    They  are  simply  an  Evangelical  Church. 


POLITY    OF    THEIR    CHURCH.  387 

to  exhort  to  the  performance  of  duty ;  to  reprove  the  erring  ; 
to  promote  the  spirit  of  piety  ;  to  look  after  the  poor,  etc., 
very  much  as  elders  are  charged  with  us.  They  are  then 
commended  to  God  in  prayer. 

The  next  court  is  the  Table,**"*  or  Board.  It  is  com- 
posed of  three  pastors,  namely,  the  moderator,  the  modera- 
tor-adjunct, and  the  secretary  of  the  synod,  and  two  lay- 
men, who  are  elected  by  the  synod.  This  court  carries  into 
effect  the  decisions  of  the  synod  in  the  intervals  of  its 
meetings ;  superintends  the  churches  and  schools,  including 
the  conduct  of  pastors  and  teachers ;  carries  on  the  foreign 
and  domestic  correspondence ;  chooses  the  deputations  to 
foreign  countries ;  suspends  unworthy  pastors  and  school- 
masters ;  examines  and  ordains  candidates  for  the  ministry ; 
superintends  the  conduct  and  studies  of  the  young  men  who 
have  the  ministry  in  view  ;  settles  difficulties  which  may 
arise  between  pastors  and  their  congregations,  etc.,  etc.  This 
body,  as  will  at  once  be  seen,  is  a  very  important  one,  and 
has  extensive  powers.  The  members  have  their  daily  ex- 
penses defrayed  whilst  engaged  in  the  business  of  the  Table, 
but  the  secretary  receives  no  additional  compensation. 

The  supreme  ecclesiastical  court  of  the  Waldenses  is  the 
Synod.  This  body  embraces  all  the  regular  pastors  and 
professors  in  the  college  who  are  ministers,  the  pastor-chap- 
lain at  Turin,  and  two  elders  as  deputies  from  each  parish. 
Besides  these,  superannuated  pastors  and  candidates  of 
theology  may  attend  and  speak,  but  not  vote.  The  two 
elders  from  each  parish  have  but  one  vote.  The  Intendant 
of  Pignerol,  with  his  secretary,  attends,  not  as  a  member, 
but  to  see  that  nothing  shall  be  done  which  might  injure  the 
cause  of  the  Roman   Catholic   Church,  and  that  the   synod 


84  So  called,  originally,  we  suppose,  from  the  members  meeting  around  a  Table. 
It  is  a  committee  ad  interim,  and  resembles  the  Commission  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 


388  THE    WALDENSES. 

confine  itself  to  the  subjects  specified  in  the  petition  addressed 
to  the  government,  asking  leave  to  hold  the  present  meeting. 

As  soon  as  the  synod  convenes,  it  is  opened  with  prayer 
by  the  last  moderator ;  after  which  they  choose  a  new  mode- 
rator, (wlio  holds  his  oflice  till  the  next  regular  meeting  of 
the  synod,)  a  moderator-adjunct,  and  a  secretary.  Two 
elders  are  also  chosen  at  that  stage  of  the  business,  to  form  a 
portion  of  the  new  Table.  After  this,  the  synod  proceeds 
with  its  usual  business,  which  is  various,  and  often  impor- 
tant ;  for  it  looks  after  the  churches,  schools,  salaries  of  min- 
isters, and  teachers  ;  enforces  discipline,  etc.,  etc.  A  great 
deal  of  its  action  has  reference  to  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs.  Formerly,  and  for  ages,  the  synod  was  the 
highest  civil  as  well  as  religious  court.  In  those  times,  it 
met  once  a  year,  commonly  in  the  month  of  September ;  but 
in  the  winter,  if  persecution  raged.  Afterwards,  it  met  once 
in  three  years.  For  a  good  while,  it  has  met  only  once  in 
five  years,  on  account  of  the  difliculty  and  expense  of  getting 
the  governmental  permission  to  hold  a  meeting,  which  costs 
about  two  hundred  and  forty  dollars  of  our  money,  a  large 
sum  for  these  poor  people  to  pay. 

The  circumstance  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  being 
laymen,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  fact,  that  the  synod  is  in 
some  sense  the  supreme  court  of  the  Waldenses,  for  the 
cognizance  not  only  of  spiritual  matters,  but  also  of  much 
that  is  mixed  or  secular ;  such  as  education,  provision  for  the 
poor,  erection  of  churches  and  school-houses,  etc.,  etc. 

The  moderator  has  no  extraordinary  power  or  authority. 
He  is  simply  president  of  the  Synod,  and  of  the  Table,  and 
performs  the  functions  which  usually  pertain  to  such  an 
office.  He  appears  at  the  head  of  his  brethren  in  his  official 
capacity  only.  He  is  elected  for  five  years,  and  may  be  re- 
elected, though  this  seldom  occurs.  He  has  no  inherent  right 
of  ordination,  as  some  have  asserted  ;  and  his  office  is  in  no 


POLITY    OF    THEIR    CHURCH.  389 

sense  whatever  episcopal.  Nor  has  it  ever  been.  In  the 
matter  of  ordination,  he  presides,  states  the  object  of  the 
service,  reads  what  are  termed  the  apostolical  canons  :  namely, 
Eph.  6  :  11  -  13  ;  1  Tim.  3:  1-7;  4:  1-6;  Tit.  1  :  5  -  9  ; 
1  Pet.  5  :  1-4.  He  then  delivers  an  appropriate  charge  to 
the  candidate,  presenting  to  his  mind  a  summary  of  his  duties 
as  a  minister  of  Jesus  Christ,  etc.  Having  then  stated  to 
the  congregation  that  the  candidate  comes  before  them  for 
ordination  in  the  regular  and  proper  way,  and  fortified  with 
the  necessary  testimonials  of  proficiency  in  learning,  etc., 
he  sets  forth  the  usual  arguments  for  believing  that  God  has 
given  authority  to  his  servants  to  ordain  men  for  the  holy 
office.  After  this,  he  calls  upon  the  candidate  to  kneel ;  the 
moderator  then  descends  from  the  pulpit,  imposes  his  hands 
on  the  head  of  the  candidate,  all  the  other  pastors  present 
doing  the  same,  utters  the  prayer  prescribed  for  the  occasion. 
After  this,  the  moderator  and  all  the  pastors  give  the  newly 
ordained  the  right  hand  of  fellowship,  and  the  service  con- 
cludes with  the  prayer  which  is  usually  offered  after  sermon. 
Such  is  the  practice  which  at  present  exists  in  the  churches 
of  the  Waldenses.  There  is  nothing  in  the  organization,  or 
action  of  these  churches,  that  in  the  slightest  degree  savors  of 
prelacy.^  And,  in  answer  to  our  inquiries  on  this  subject, 
the  pastors  have,  without  exception,  stated  that  prelacy  has 
never  existed  in  the  valleys ;  and  that  such  has  ever  been 
the  uniform  opinion  of  their  ancestors,  so  far  as  it  has  been 
handed  down  to  them.  As  to  the  bishops  spoken  of  in  some 
of  their  early  writings,  they  believe  that  they  were  nothing 
more  than  pastors.  They  say,  what  is  undeniable,  that  their 
histories  speak  continually  of  their  barbes,  as  being  their  re- 


85  In  the  portion  of  the  liturgy  which  refers  to  ordination,  there  is  no  specific 
mention  of  the  moderator.  The  phrases  employed  are  ie  Pasteur  officiant :  le  Pas- 
teur :  but  it  seems  to  be  considered  as  peculiarly  proper  that  the  moderator  shonld 
officiate  on  the  occasion. 

33* 


390  THE    WALDENSES. 

ligious  teachers  and  guides,  but  that  the  word  bishop  is 
hardly  ever  met  vvith.^'' 

With  regard  to  the  settlement  of  ministers  in  the  valleys, 
we  have  to  say  that  in  all  the  parishes,  save  the  four  upper- 
most ones,  Prali,  Radoret,  Macel,  and  Maneille,  which  are 
exceedingly  difficult  posts,  there  is  no  restriction  on  the 
choice  of  a  minister,  save  that  they  may  not  elect  one  who  is 
younger  than  the  pastors  who  are  in  those  high  and  moun- 
tainous parishes.  As  to  those  four  parishes,  they  are  re- 
quired to  choose  young  men.  It  thus  happens  that  almost 
all  their  ministers  must  commence  their  pastoral  life  by 
laboring  for  a  season,  —  commonly  but  a  few  years,  —  in 
those  elevated  and  hard  fields.  After  that  they  stand  a 
chance  to  succeed  to  vacancies  in  the  more  important  par- 
ishes in  the  valleys  below.  So  that  it  may  be  said  of  them, 
that  in  going  down  in  the  world  they  rise  in  honor  and  influ- 
ence in  the  church  ! 

When  we  visited  the  valleys  in  the  year  1837,  the  Rev. 
Jean  Pierre  Bonjour,  pastor  of  the  parish  of  St.  Jean,  was 
moderator  of  the  synod.  When  we  made  our  second  visit, 
in  the  summer  of  1843,  his  brother,  Jean  Jacques  Bonjour, 
pastor  of  the  parish  of  St.  Germain,  held  that  office.  Who 
was  elected  by  the  synod  at  its  meeting  last  September,  we 
have  not  heard. 

The  salaries  of  the  Waldensian  pastors  vary  from  about 
twelve  hundred  and  fifty  to  fifteen  hundred  francs  (from  two 
hundred  and  forty-seven  to  two  hundred  and  ninety-six  dol- 

86  The  advocates  of  prelacy  have  great  difficulty  with  ihe  case  of  the  Waldenses. 
And  this  Mr.  Faber  admits,  when  he  says,  (in  his  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  The- 
ology of  the  Ancient  Vallenses  aiid  Albigenses,  p.  553,)  '  I  readily  confess,  that  I  am 
not  able  to  de7nomtrate  the  circumstance  of  their  possessing  an  apostolical  succes- 
sion, either  as  regularly  transmitted  by  the  episcopal  ordination,  or  as  less  regu- 
larly handed  down  by  the  simple  imposilion  of  the  hands  by  the  presbytery.'  And 
he  thinks  —  and  we  concur  with  him  in  this  opinion  — that  'it  may,  perhaps,  en- 
danger the  whole  system  of  apostolical  succession,  if  we  too  rigidly  insist  upon  the 
absolute  necessity  of  a  transmission  through  the  medium  of  bishops  exclusively.^ 


POLITY    OF    THEIR    CHURCH.  391 

lars).  Four  of  the  oldest  have  an  addition  made  to  theirs 
proportioned  to  the  age  of  each.  We  have  stated  that  from 
a  tax  levied  on  the  Waldenses  themselves  by  the  Sardinian 
government,  the  sum  of  five  hundred  francs  is  raised  for  each 
pastor.  We  have  also  stated  that  the  British  government, 
since  1827,  has  annually  sent  the  sum  -of  two  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  pounds  sterling,  ^  which  gives  each  of  thirteen 
pastors  three  hundred  francs,  and  leaves  a  balance  for  the 
support  of  two  additional  pastors,  and  for  the  relief  of  inca- 
pacitated pastors  and  the  widoAvs  of  pastors.  A  part  of  the 
moneys  received  from  Holland  is  appropriated  to  the  last- 
named  object. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  statement  that  a  considerable  part 
of  the  salaries  of  their  pastors  has  to  be  made  up  by  the 
Waldenses  themselves,  in  the  way  of  voluntary  contributions. 
Each  pastor  has  a  presbytere,  or  parsonage,  with  a  few  acres, 
which  is  kept  in  order  by  the  parish.  No  fees  are  given  at 
marriages,  baptisms,  or  funerals. 

We  conclude  what  we  have  to  say  on  the  polity  of  the 
Waldensian  churches,  with  an  extract  or  two  from  the  pen 
of  one  whose  opinion  on  this  subject  is  entitled  to  great 
weight. 

'The  first  thing  that  strikes  a  stranger  on  entering  the 
temples  of  the  Vaudois,  is  the  perfect  contrast  which  their 
services  present  to  those  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Here  are 
no  visible  objects  of  worship,  no  mediating  priests,  no  splen- 
did vestments,  no  gaudy  or  childish  ceremonies,  no  pompous 
processions,  no  trumpery  relics  of  paganism,  —  but  all  is 
simplicity,  decency,  and  order.  The  pastor  and  the  reader 
are  the  only  persons  who  officiate  in  the  congregation,  and 

87  111  the  year  1768,  the  sum  of  £10,000  was  collected  in  England,  and  intrusted 
to  the  '  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  ; '  and  the  interest, 
amounting  to  £292,  was  regularly  remitted  to  the  valleys  till  1797.  We  believe  that 
since  its  renewal,  a  part  is  devoted  to  the  support  of  schools. 


392  THE   WALDENSES. 

contribute  to  their  edification.  Instead  of  a  magnificent 
altar,  decked  with  gold  and  silver,  and  precious  stones, 
towards  which  the  worshippers  are  to  turn,  or  before  which 
they  are  to  prostrate  themselves,  there  is  only  a  plain  table 
in  the  pew  before  the  pulpit,  from  which  the  elements  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  are  dispensed  to  the  communicants.  Instead 
of  mass-books,  in  an  unknown  tongue,  is  the  Bible,  in  a  lan- 
guage which  all  understand,  and  of  which  copious  portions 
are  read  at  each  service.  Instead  of  chanting  priests,  sing- 
ing boys,  pealing  orchestras,  and  ignorant  multitudes  gazing 
and  listening  with  superstitious  admiration,  we  find  the  whole 
congregation  celebrating,  in  full  and  intelligent  chorus,  the 
praises  of  Jehovah.  And  this  simple  worship,  which  reminds 
us  of  that  of  the  primitive  Christians,  before  the  fathers  broke 
in  upon  its  integrity  by  the  addition  of  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  their  own  invention,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  is 
pretty  much  the  same  that  has  obtained  in  the  valleys  of 
Piedmont  from  ancient  times.  Accustomed,  as  the  Vaudois 
were,  to  assemble  in  the  houses  of  their  barbes,  in  caves, 
under  the  shade  of  their  wide-spreading  chestnuts,  or  on  the 
verdant  sides  of  their  Alpine  mountains,  they  could  have 
nothing  to  tempt  the  introduction  of  any  rites  inconsistent 
with  the  noble  simplicity  of  their  institutions.  The  main 
ground  which  they  had  all  along  occupied  in  opposition  to 
Rome,  consisted  in  their  refusing  to  receive  any  doctrine  or 
usage  that  did  not  possess  the  sanction  of  the  Word  of  God. 

'  From  what  we  know  of  the  religious  practices  of  the 
Cathari,  and  other  reformers  in  different  parts  of  the 
north  of  Italy,  it  is  natural  to  conclude,  that  the  ancient 
Vaudois,  if  they  had  not  a  regularly  organized  church  consti- 
tution, derived  from  Apostolic  times,  (as  some  are  inclined  to 
believe,)  were  originally  accustomed  to  meet,  in  the  simple 
capacity  of  Christians,  for  the  worship  of  God,  and  mutual 
edification,  much  in  the  same  way  as  those  in  the  present 


POLITY    OF    THEIR    CHURCH.  393 

day,  who  Lave  their  reunions,  or  prayer-meetings,  in  addition 
to  the  public  service  in  the  churches.  By  degrees,  as  they 
became  better  acquainted  with  each  other,  and  had  opportu- 
nity of  ascertaining  which  of  them  were  specially  endowed 
with  gifts  for  edification,  they  would  devolve  upon  such  the 
prominent  parts  of  the  service ;  and  at  length  regard  them  as 
their  stated  leaders,  pastors,  or  spiritual  rulers.  In  some 
instances,  it  is  more  than  probable,  they  enjoyed  the  instruc- 
tion of  those  who  had  been  priests  in  the  Roman  Church,  but 
whose  eyes  God  had  opened  to  discover  her  abominations, 
and  whom  He  had  induced  to  come  out  of  her,  lest  they 
should  be  partakers  of  her  plagues. 

'  Of  apostolical  succession,  in  the  way  of  a  regular  sacerdo- 
tal line  of  descent,  they  had  no  conception.  They  would 
have  scouted  the  idea,  as  tending  to  reduce  them  to  the  yoke 
of  bondage  to  human  institutions,  from  which  it  was  their 
privilege  and  their  duty  to  be  free.  To  apostolical  succes- 
sion they  did,  indeed,  pretend :  but  it  was  a  succession,  not  of 
men,  but  of  doctrine  —  a  succession,  not  in  the  shape  of  a 
mystical,  undefinable,  intangible  something,  attaching  to 
priestly  virtue  and  authority ;  but  in  the  solid,  substantial, 
and  reasonable  faith  of  a  living  Christianity.  It  was  not  a 
transmission  of  something  called  grace,  lodged  in  and  deriva- 
ble only  from  an  episcopate ;  but  of  the  divine  principles  of 
the  gospel,  which  teach  the  only  true  and  saving  grace  of 
God,  as  deposited  in  the  one  glorious  Mediator,  and  derivable 
from  him,  upon  all  believers.  They  never  dreamed  that 
union  with  a  certain  order  of  men,  and  reception  of  the  ordi- 
nances of  Christianity  at  their  hands,  were  essential  to  salva- 
tion ;  but  taught,  that  the  only  things  essentially  requisite  to 
this  all-important  result,  w^ere,  acceptance  with  God,  through 
the  propitiatory  sacrifice  of  his  Son,  and  the  renewal  of  the 
soul  into  his  sacred  image,  by  the  regenerating  influences  of 
the  Holy  Ghost. 


894  THE    WALDENSES. 

'  That  the  Vaudois  ever  had  bishops,  in  the  popish,  or  pre- 
latical  acceptation  of  the  term,  does  not  appear.  No  trace  of 
an  episcoj^al  hierarchy  is  to  be  found  in  any  of  their  ancient 
documents.  Their  church  polity  has  all  along  been  essen- 
tially popular.  Seo  Ministres  majores  e  menores^  are  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  marks  of  Anticlirist,  in  the  Book  of 
Antichrist,  bearing-date  1120.'®^ 

X.     Doctrines  of  the  Waldensian  Churches. 

There  is  abundant  evidence,  that  the  churches  in  the  val- 
leys have  in  all  ages  maintained  an  essential  soundness  in  the 
Faith.  Even  very  few  of  their  bitterest  enemies  ever  dared 
to  charge  them  with  heresy.  This  is  very  remarkable.  To 
the  Paulicians  and  the  Albigenses  were  imputed  the  gross 
errors  of  the  Manicheans  ;  but  the  most  distinguished  Roman 
Catholic  authors  who  have  written  against  the  Waldenses, 
have  admitted  that  they  held  the  doctrines  contained  in  the 
apostles'  creed;  their  only,  their  unpardonable  fault  being, 
that  they  rejected  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  all  the  dog- 
mas and  practices  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  which  are  contrary 
to  the  Scriptures. 

Sir  Samuel  Morland  brought  with  him  to  England  a  great 
many  treatises  and  documents,  from  these  valleys,  some  of 
which  were  very  ancient,  such  as  the  Nohle  Lesson,  the 
Treatise  on  Antichrist,  a  Catechism,  and  others,  some  of 
which  are  admitted  to  belong  to  the  twelfth  century,  which 
he  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  University  at  Cambridge.^ 

88  The  existence  of  higher  and  lower  orders  of  ministers. 

89  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson,  in  his  Vaudois^  pp.  205  —  208. 

90  It  is  a  mysterious  fact,  that  of  the  twenty-one  volumes  of  Waldensian  docu- 
ments, which  Sir  Samuel  Morland  presented  to  the  Library  of  Cambridge,  in  Au- 
gust, 1658,  the  first  seven,  containing  the  most  ancient  and  valuable,  have  long 
since  disappeared,  and  not  a  vestige  of  them  can  be  traced  !  Some  have  supposed 
they  never  were  actually  deposited,  and  that  Sir  Samuel,  though  he  intended  to 


THEIR    DOCTRINES.  395 

An  examination  of  these  records,  —  including  confessions  of 
faith,  and  declarations  of  their  doctrines  at  different  epochs  — 
will  satisfy  any  man  who  knows  what  the  gospel  is,  that  its 
great  and  saving  truths  were  always  maintained  by  the 
Evangelical  Church  of  the  valleys,  even  in  the  darkest 
periods. 

It  is  true,  that  the  Reformation  gave  them  a  more  clear 
and  systematic  arrangement  of  doctrines,  and  made  some  of 
these  assume  a  greater  prominence  than  they  had  hitherto 
had  in  their  creeds  and  formularies.  Of  this  we  have  proof 
in  the  doings  of  the  synod  which  met  at  Angrogna,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1535,  where,  after  having  heard  the  result  of  the 
conference  which  George  Morel  and  Peter  Mascon,  two 
pastors  whom  their  brethren  of  Provence  and  Dauphiny 
had  sent  to  see  Bucer,  QEcolampadius,  and  other  Reformers 
in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  they  adopted  seventeen  propo- 
sitions, which  are  eminently  Protestant.^^ 


place  them  there,  was  prevented  from  doing  so.  But  this  is  hardly  probable.  In 
his  work  on  the  Waldenses,  he  speaks  in  the  most  positive  manner  of  having  de- 
posited them,  and  tells  us  what  they  were.  The  most  probable  conjecture  about 
their  fate,  is,  that  they  were  carried  oft' by  some  Jesuit  in  the  time  of  James  II. 

91  Article  1.  Divine  service  cannot  be  duly  performed,  but  in  spirit  and  truth  ;  for 
God  is  a  spirit,  and  whosoever  will  pray  unto  him  must  pray  in  spirit. 

2.  All  that  have  been,  or  shall  be  saved,  were  elected  by  God  before  all  worlds. 

3.  They  who  are  saved  cannot  miss  of  salvation. 

4.  Whosoever  maintaineth  free-will,  wholly  denieth  predestination,  and  the 
grace  of  God. 

5.  No  work  is  called  good,  but  that  which  is  commanded  by  God;  and  none 
evil  but  that  which  he  forbiddeth. 

6.  A  Christian  may  swear  by  the  name  of  God,  without  any  contradiction  to 
what  is  written  in  the  fit'ih  chapter  of  Matthew,  provided  that  he  who  sweareth, 
taketh  not  the  name  of  the  Lord  in  vain.  Now  that  person  sweareth  not  in  vain, 
whose  oath  redoundeth  to  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  good  of  his  neighbor.  A  man 
also  may  swear  in  judgment,  because  he  that  beareth  the  office  of  a  magistrate,  be 
he  Christian  or  infidel,  derives  his  power  from  God. 

7.  Auricular  confession  is  not  enjoined  by  God  ;  and  it  is  conclud(  d  according 
to  the  holy  Scriptures,  that  the  true  confession  of  a  Christian  consists  in  confessing 
himself  to  one  only  God,  to  whom  belong  honor  and  glory.  There  is  another  kind 
of  confession,  which  is,  when  a  man  reconcileth  himself  to  his  neighbor,  whereof 
mention  is  made  in  the  fifth  of  Matthew.    The  third  manner  of  confession  is,  when, 


396  THE    WALDENSES. 

Their  present  Confession  of  Faith  was  made  in  1655, 
when  they  addressed  their  famous  appeal  to  the  Protestant 
nations,  in  which  they  declared  that  their  Faith  coincided 
with  that  of  the  Protestant  Churches  of  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, England,  the  United  Provinces,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Poland,  Bohemia,  etc.  This  document  consists  of  thirty- 
three  articles,  and  was  drawn  up  with  great  ability,  by  Leger 
and  others,  who  led  them  in  that  day  of  dreadful  trial.  It  is 
eminently  evangelical,  and,  though  Calvinistic  in  its  tenden- 
cy, is  so  moderate  and  guarded  in  its  statements,  that  there  is 
little  in  it  which  even  the  most  strenuous  opposer  of  Calvin- 
ism, as  a  system,  would  condemn. 

That  there  was  a  falling  off  in  relation  to  sound  doctrine 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  in  the  beginning  of 


as  a  man's  sin  is  public,  and  exposed  to  the  notice  and  censure  of  all  men,  so  his 
confession  and  acknowledgment  of  the  fault  be  as  public. 

8.  We  must  rest,  or  cease,  upon  the  Lord's  day,  from  all  our  labors,  out  of  zeal 
for  the  honor  and  glory  of  God  ;  for  the  better  exercise  of  charity  towards  our  neigh- 
bor, and  our  better  attendance  upon  the  hearing  of  the  Word  of  God. 

9.  It  is  not  lawful  for  a  Christian  to  revenge  himself  on  his  enemy,  in  any  case 
or  manner  whatsoever. 

10.  A  Christian  may  exercise  the  office  of  a  magistrate  over  Christians. 

11.  There  is  no  certain  time  determined  for  the  fast  of  a  Christian ;  and  it  doth 
not  appear  in  the  Word  of  God,  that  the  Lord  hath  commanded  or  appointed  certain 
days. 

12.  Marriage  is  not  prohibited  to  any  man,  of  what  quality  or  condition  soever 
he  be. 

13.  Whosoever  forbiddeth  marriage,  teacheth  a  diabolical  doctrine. 

14.  He  who  hath  not  the  gift  of  continency  is  bound  to  marry. 

15.  The  ministers  of  the  Word  of  God  ought  not  to  be  removed  fromfone  place 
to  another,  unless  it  be  to  the  great  benefit  and  advantage  of  the  Church. 

16.  It  is  no  ways  repugnant  to  the  apostolical  communion,  that  the  ministers 
should  possess  any  thing  in  particular,  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
families. 

17.  As  to  the  sacraments,  it  hath  been  determined  by  the  holy  Scriptures,  that 
we  have  but  two  sacramental  signs,  or  symbols,  which  Christ  Jesus  hath  left  unto 
us  ;  the  one  is  baptism,  the  oiher  the  eucharist  or  Lord's  supper,  which  we  receive 
to  demonstrate  our  perseverance  in  the  faith,  according  to  the  promise  we  made  in 
our  baptism  in  our  infancy  ;  as  also  in  remembrance  of  that  great  benefit  which 
Jesus  Christ  hath  conferred  upon  us,  when  he  laid  down  his  life  for  our  redemption, 
cleansing  us  with  his  most  precious  blood.    Perrin's  Hist.  lib.  ii.  c.  4. 


THEIR    DOCTRINES.  397 

the  present,  cannot  be  denied.  This  was  brought  about  by 
the  influence  of  Geneva  and  Lausanne,  especially  the  for- 
mer, whither  the  Waldenses  have  been  in  the  habit  of  send- 
ing their  young  men  to  pursue  their  studies  for  the  ministry. 
When  Calvin  established  the  academy  of  Geneva,  provision 
was  made  for  the  education  of  two  students  from  the  valleys^ 
at  the  expense  of  the  city.  At  Lausanne,  provision  was 
made  for  the  education  of  five,  in  the  academy  or  university 
of  that  city.  In  consequence  of  this,  there  have  always  been 
seven  Waldensian  students  of  theology  prosecuting  their 
studies  in  those  institutions,  during  the  last  three  hundred 
years.  And  when  a  cold  rationalism,  or  German  neology, 
crept  into  them,  and  especially  into  the  former,  its  deleterious 
influence  could  not  but  reach  to  the  valleys.  Thanks  be  to 
God  !  that  day  is  over.  All  the  pastors  of  that  country  are 
now  decidedly  orthodox,  though  they  are  not  all  as  discrimi- 
nating and  zealous  as  they  ought  to  be.  In  this  respect,  too, 
there  is  manifest  progress.  Instead  of  sending  their  students 
to  the  academy  of  Geneva,  where  rationalism  still  reigns  in 
Calvin's  seat,  they  place  those  who  go  to  that  city,  chiefly,  if 
not  exclusively,  in  the  new  theological  school,  of  which  the 
distinguished  Merle  d'Aubigne  is  the  president.  At  this 
moment  they  have*six  young  men  in  that  institution.  They 
have  usually  a  far  greater  number  at  Lausanne,  mostly,  how- 
ever, in  other  departments  of  study  than  theology. 

On  the  subject  of  baptism,  these  churches  are,  as  has  already 
been  intimated,  pasdobaptist.  And  their  pastors  have  assured 
us  that  it  is  their  belief,  founded  on  their  histories  and  tradi- 
tions, that  they  have  ever  been  such  from  the  earliest  times. 
They  stated  to  us,  that  if  ever  there  was  a  time  in  which  they 
did  not  baptize  their  children,  it  was  in  those  ages  of  oppres- 
sion, when  they  were  not  permitted  to  do  it  themselves,  and 
they  would  not  suiFer  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  to  adminis- 


34 


398  THE    WALDENSES. 

ter  that  ordinance,  inasmuch  as  they  have  added  to  it  several 
superstitious  practices,  which  they  utterly  reject.^^ 

We  may  remark,  that  the  Catechism  which  they  employ, 
and  M'hich  they  are  most  careful  to  teach  their  children,  is  the 
excellent  one  of  Ostervald,  which  is  eminently  clear,  judicious, 
and  sound. 

XI.     Roman   Catholic  Injluence  in  the    Valleys. 

The  reader  has,  without  doubt,  been  impressed  with  the  fact 
that  there  are  as  many  Roman  Catholic  churches  as  Protest- 
ant among  the  Waldenses,  and  that  the  adherents  to  Rome 
have  been  for  a  long  time  steadily  increasing.  They  are  to 
be  found  in  every  parish.  And  as  they  are  ever  ready  to 
buy  the  lands  which  the  poor  Waldensians  may  be  forced 
through  overwhelming  poverty  to  sell,  and  can  offer  twice  or 
thrice  as  much,  if  necessary,  for  it  as  their  poor  brethren  of 
the  same  Faith  can  give,  they  have  been  gradually  getting 
the  best  lands  into  their  hands.  It  is  probable  that  there 
will  be  less  of  this  in  future  ;  for  the  friends  of  the  Walden- 
ses in  England,  Holland,  Prussia,  and  Switzerland,  will  look 
after  this  matter. 

And  though  it  is  a  delightful  fact  that  these  Waldenses 
live  on  good  terms  with  their  Roman  Catholic  neighbors  in 
the  valleys,  it  is  not  the  less  true  that  the  priests  are  infusing 
a  proselyting  spirit  into  their  people  which  manifests  itself  in 
various  ways.     Even  foreign  Protestants,  especially  ladies, 


92  In  ihe  text,  we  have  stated  the  practice  which  exists  among  the  Waldenses  in 
the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  and  the  opinions  of  the  present  pastors.  Their  histories, 
we  think,  confirm  these  opinions.  But  it  is  due  to  candor  to  say,  that  we  deem 
it  quite  probable,  if  not  certain,  —  though  M'e  have  never  examined  this  point 
with  much  care,  —  that  there  were  other  branches  of  the  Waldenses,  for  they  were 
numerous,  which  did  neither  hold  nor  practice  infant  baptism.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult, upon  any  other  hypothesis,  to  account  for  the  opinion,  confidently  maintained, 
and,  without  doubt,  most  iionestly  too,  by  the  excellent  brethren  who  reject  paedo- 
baptism,  that  the  Waldenses  were  Baptists. 


STATE    OF   RELIGION.  399 

are  now  sometimes  approached,  as  in  all  parts  of  Italy, 
wherever  a  chance  is  furnished,  by  some  artful  and  insin- 
uating Jesuit  or  Jesuitess  —  if  we  may  so  term  these  female 
emissaries  —  who  seek  by  some  means  or  other  to  bring  the 
subject  of  religion  before  their  minds,  and  first  do  away  their 
Protestant  prejudices,  as  they  call  them,  and  then  unfold  the 
claims  of  Romanism  —  its  permanent  faith,  its  gorgeous  rites 
and  ceremonies,  its  delightful  music,  etc.,  etc. 

We  have  stated  that  a  large  and  handsome  monastery  has 
been  lately  established  at  La  Tour,  for  the  purpose  of  train- 
ing missionary  priests,  destined  to  be  employed  in  traversing 
these  valleys,  and  proselyting  the  Waldenses  to  the  faith  of 
Rome.  To  this  establishment  the  order  of  St.  Maurice  and 
St.  Lazarus  has  contributed  the  sum  of  £9,544  14s.  6c?.,  and 
made  a  grant  of  £680  annually,  for  its  maintenance.  The 
new  church  adjoining  was  dedicated  last  summer  with  great 
parade. 

It  is  evident  that  Rome  is  going  to  put  forth  her  mightiest 
efforts  to  convert  these  people  ;  after  having  spent  hundreds 
of  years  in  trying  to  destroy  them  by  persecution  and  war. 
The  result  will  be  looked  for  with  great  anxiety  in  three 
worlds ! 

XII.     State  of  Religion  among  the    Waldenses. 

It  is  the  testimony  of  all,  that  true  religion  has  been  grad- 
ually, but  manifestly  gaining  ground  in  the  valleys  during  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century.  A  visit  which  that  wonderful  man, 
Felix  Neff,  made  to  that  country  about  the  year  1823,  con- 
tributed much  to  this  happy  result.  And  though  there  is  still 
a  great  amount  of  formalism  among  them,  and  the  Sabbath  is 
not  as  well  observed  —  especially  the  afternoon  —  as  it  ought 


400  THE    WALDENSES. 

to  be,  yet  it  is  certainly  true  that  vital  piety  is  returning 
to  the  churches.^ 

We  were  greatly  pleased  to  find  that  prayer-meetings  are 
held  in  many  of  the  villages  and  hamlets,  Sunday  afternoons 
and  evenings,  as  well  as  sometimes  during  the  week.  And  we 
were  often  pleased  with  the  singing  of  sweet  hymns,  which  we 
heard  in  our  strolls  through  the  valleys.  We  have  witnessed 
few  scenes  more  enchanting,  than  when  passing  through  the 
deep  glens  and  valleys  of  that  wonderful  country,  as  the  sun 
on  a  fine  summer's  day  was  fast  descending  to  the  western 
horizon.  Ever  and  anon,  we  heard  the  bleating  of  the 
flocks,  as  they  were  driven  home  for  the  night,  and  the 
psalms  that  were  sung  by  girls  and  boys  who  attended 
them,  echoed  and  reechoed  from  the  rocks  and  ravines  of  the 
mountain-barriers  which  surrounded  us.  The  language  of 
the  sweet  letter  of  Paula  and  Eustochium  to  Marcella,  de- 
scribing the  religious  feelings  and  exercises  of  the  peasants 
around  Bethlehem,  in  the  days  of  Jerome,  might  almost  be 
employed  respecting  these  simple-hearted  Christians  of  the 
valleys:  'In  every  direction  where  there  is  a  sound  of 
human  voices,  it  is  the  voice  of  psalmody.  If  it  be  the 
ploughman  guiding  his  plough,  his  song  is  hallelujah!  If 
it  be  the  shepherd  tending  his  flock,  the  reaper  gathering 
his  corn,  or  the  vine-dresser  pruning  the  tendrils,  his  chant 
is  the  same  ;  it  is  some  song  of  David  that  he  sings.  Here 
all  poetry  is  sacred  poetry,  and  every  feeling  of  the  heart 
finds  utterance  in  the  language  of  the  Psalmist.'  ^^ 


93  One  of  the  favorite  amusements  among  the  people  is  the  tirata,  or  finng  at  a 
target,  or  mark,  inasmuch  as  hunting  ilie  chamois  goat  and  other  game  makes 
them  fond  of  fire-arms.  The  young  men  follow  this  amusement  much  lessontlie 
Sabbaih  afternoons  than  they  did  a  few  years  ago  ;  but  there  is  something  of  it  still. 
It  is,  however,  far  more  common  on  the  holydays  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which  the  Waldenses  are  required,  most  unjustly,  to  keep. 

94  Opera  Hieron.  vol.  iv.  p.  553  ;  quoted  in  Dr.  Gilly's  Vigilantius,  p.  235. 


STATE    OF   MORALS.  401 

The  "Waldensian  pastors  experience  great  difficulty  itt 
enforcing  discipline,  surrounded  as  they  are  by  Roman 
Catholic  priests,  who  would  at  once  avail  themselves  of 
every  instance  of  disaffection,  to  persuade  the  persons 
who  might  be  alienated  by  severe  and  open  censure,  or  ex- 
communication, to  find  refuge  within  the  pale  of  Rome- 
And  if  a  Waldensian  only  once  goes  to  see  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  to  speak  with  him  on  the  subject  of  his  becoming  a 
Catholic,  no  one,  be  he  minister  or  layman,  is  allowed,  under 
the  penalty  of  death,  to  try  to  save  him  from  taking  the 
step ! 

A  number  of  years  ago,  a  sort  of  secession  took  place  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Jean,  because  a  pastor,  now  deceased,  was 
allowed  to  continue  to  preach,  whose  orthodoxy  was  called  in 
question.  This  has  led  to  the  formation  of  a  party  who  are 
reputed  to  be  more  strict  in  their  views,  and  zealous  in 
behalf  of  the  cause  of  vital  piety,  than  the  others.  These 
are  now  a  considerable  band.  And  though  they  have  to 
endure  a  good  deal  of  opprobrium,  being  called  '  momiers ' 
and  '  methodistes,' ^^  yet  their  influence  is  unquestionably 
good.  It  is  hoped  that  as  spiritual  religion  gains  ground,  this 
division,  which  is  incident  to  a  state  of  transition,  will  dis- 
appear ;  and  that  that  harmony  will  be  restored  which  is  so 
important  to  the  Waldenses,  surrounded  and  pervaded  as  they 
are  by  enemies. 

XIII.     State  of  Morals  among  the  Waldenses. 

The  Waldenses  suffered  very  much  in  their  morals  for 
years,  from  the  pernicious  influence  of  the   French  troops, 


95  It  is  wonderful  how  uniformly  the  enmity  of  the  human  heart  manifests  itself  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  resuscitation  of  vital  piety  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont, 
provokes  the  same  opposition,  and  the  same  opprobrious  epithets,  as  it  did  in  Eng- 
land in  Whitefield  and  Wesley's  day.  and  as  it  has  sometimes  done  in  our  country, 
and  in  our  day. 

34* 


402  THE    WALDENSES. 

that  so  often  traversed  their  valleys  in  the  time  of  Napoleon, 
as  well  as  from  the  bad  habits  which  their  own  conscripts,  in 
many  cases,  brought  back  from  the  armies  of  that  modern 
Alexander,  in  which  they  were  often  compelled  to  serve,  even 
in  his  most  distant  campaigns.  ^  But  that  influence  is  now 
passed  away,  and  that  purity  of  life,  which  so  greatly  distin- 
guished their  ancestors,  has  in  a  good  degree  returned. 
What  the  state  of  morals  among  these  valleys  was  in  former 
days,  we  may  learn  from  what  one  of  their  bitter  enemies 
says  respecting  them.  '  Moreover,  they  live  a  life  of  greater 
purity  than  other  Christians.  They  do  not  take  an  oath 
unless  required  to  do  so,  and  it  is  seldom  that  they  take  the 
name  of  God  in  vain.  They  fulfil  their  promises  with  good 
faith,  and  though  the  greater  part  of  them  are  living  in  pov- 
erty, they  maintain  that  they  alone  have  preserved  the 
apostolical  life  and  doctrine.  On  this  account  they  affirm 
that  the  authority  of  the  Church  resides  in  them,  as  innocent 
and  true  disciples  of  Christ ;  for  the  sake  of  whose  faith  and 
religion,  they  consider  it  honorable  and  glorious  to  live  in 
want,  and  to  suffer  persecution  from  us.'  ^'^  And  the  distin- 
guished Roman  Catholic  historian,  De  Thou,  bears  this 
testimony  respecting  them :  '  Chastity  is  held  in  high  honor 
among  the  Waldenses ;  so  much  so  that  their  neighbors, 
although  differing  from  them  greatly  in  religion,  when  they 
would  consult  for  the  virtue  of  their  daughters,  through  fear 
of  violence  from  the  licentious  military,  have  committed  them 
to  the  care  and  fidelity  of  the  Waldenses.'  ^ 

96  And  yet  Bonaparte  took  a  deep  interest  in  these  people.  One  of  the  de- 
spatches which  he  dictated  from  Moscow,  when  on  fire,  related  to  a  Waldensian 
pastor ! 

97  Claude  Scyssel.  Adv.  error,  et  sect.  Valdenses,  fol.  9.  Claude  Scyssel,  it  will  be 
remembered,  was  archbishop  of  Turin  about  the  year  1500. 

98  Tkuani  Historia,  lib.  xxvii.  torn.  ii.  p.  19.  De  Thou  is  better  known  under  the 
Latin  name  of  Thuamts.     His  History  is  in  both  French  and  Latin. 


STATE    OF   MORALS.  403 

From  all  that  we  have  learned  of  these  people,  from  the 
best  of  sources,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  express  our  belief  that 
it  is  not  possible  to  find  another  community  of  the  same 
extent,  which  is  equally  virtuous.  Drunkenness,  profane 
swearing,  and  licentiousness,^^  are  almost  wholly  unknown 
among  them.  What  difficulties  they  may  have  among  them- 
selves, chiefly  relate  to  their  lands.  In  general,  there  is  a 
most  dehghtful  spirit  of  harmony  among  them.  And  nothing 
can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  kindness  which  pervades  the 
entire  population.  If  any  of  them  is  sick,  his  neighbors 
hasten  to  proffer  their  services.  They  bring  him  bread  and 
wine,  and  supply  his  lamp  with  oil  at  night,  if  he  is  in  needy 
circumstances.  If  misfortune  overtakes  any  of  their  fellow- 
citizens,  whether  Protestants  or  Roman  Catholics,  they  make 
up  a  contribution  to  furnish  the  needed  succor.  If  any 
farmer  is  behind  in  his  work,  his  neighbors  come  together 
and  assist  him. 

Children  of  misfortune,  they  have  effectually  learned  to 
sympathize  with  the  miserable.      No  people  in  the  world 
could  with  more  propriety  adopt  the  language  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian queen,  as  expressive  of  their  own  feelings : 
'  Haud  ignara  mali,  miseris  succuiTere  disco.' 

Poor  as  they  are  themselves,  and  difficult  as  it  is  for  them 
to  sustain  the  gospel  in  their  valleys,  they  nevertheless  desire 
to  do  something,  be  it  ever  so  little,  to  promote  the  kingdom 
of  Christ  elsewhere.  Every  year  they  make  a  collection  in 
their  churches,  and  send  the  sum  raised  to  the  societies  at 
Geneva  and  Basle,  to  spread  the  Truth  in  France,  and  to 
carry  it  to  the  heathen.     In  the  year  1825,  when  Holland 


90  All  the  illegilimate  children  bom  in  ihe  valleys  are  taken  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, (sometimes  even  by  force,)  and  placed  in  their  convents.  It  is  strange  that 
Rome  has  ever  manifested  so  much  desire  to  get  possession  of  such  children.  Is  it 
because  they  make  belter  priests  and  nuns  for  her  purposes,  having  no  known  ties 
to  bind  them  to  society  ? 


404  THE    WALDENSES. 

suffered  so  much  from  a  dreadful  inundation,  the  Waldenses 
raised  a  fund  of  three  thousand  francs,  for  the  relief  of  the 
many  families  which  were  reduced  to  circumstances  of  com- 
plete destitution  by  that  calamity.  To  raise  that  sum,  every 
individual  among  them  contrihiited  something^  as  we  learn 
from  the  letter  of  Count  Waldbourg-Truchsess,  which  con- 
veyed the  bounty  of  these  poor  people.  'Even  the  little 
children,'  says  he,  '  gave  each  their  sou  ^^  to  this  excellent 
charity.' 

XIV.     State  of  Education  in  the  Valleys. 

In  nothing  have  the  Waldenses  differed  more  from  the 
people  who  surround  them,  than  a  desire  to  give  their  chil- 
dren the  best  education  which  their  great  poverty  permitted. 
Alas,  however,  so  troublous  were  the  times  during  several 
centuries,  and  so  very  poor  were  the  greater  part  of  them, 
and  so  great  the  difficulty  of  procuring  books,  that  for  many 
ages,  but  a  small  portion  of  them  could  be  said  to  know  more 
than  how  to  read  and  write.  Even  when  they  became  known 
to  the  world  again,  after  the  restoration  of  peace  to  the 
nations,  in  1815,  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  sad  destitution 
of  schools  among  them.  Thanks  be  to  God,  the  case  is  now 
far  different. 

In  1823,  Dr.  Gilly  visited  these  valleys,  and  gave  such  an 
account  of  the  deplorable  destitution  of  the  means  of  instruc- 
tion which  existed,  that  great  interest  was  excited  in  England 
in  their  behalf.  Not  only  were  funds  collected  to  found  a 
hospital,  but  considerable  sums  were  given  by  liberal  and 
wealthy  donors,  as  we  have  already  stated,  to  promote  the 
education  of  the  children.  Through  the  exertions  of  this 
Kev.  Mr.  Sims  and  others,  funds  were  procured  to  open  some 
female   schools  of  a   higher  order   than   usual.     Dr.   Gilly 

100  Equivalent  to  our  cent. 


STATE    OF    EDUCATION. 


405 


collected  the  very  handsome  sum  of  five  thousand  pounds  for 
the  building  of  a  college,  which  had  just  been  erected  at  La 
Tour,  or  rather  in  the  adjoining  hamlet  of  St.  Margarita,  at 
the  epoch  of  our  first  visit.  When  we  made  our  second  tour 
in  these  valleys  in  1843,  we  found  the  College  of  the  Trinity, 
as  it  is  called,  in  successful  operation.  It  is  a  fine  stone 
building,  nearly  one  hundred  feet  long,  three  stories  high,  and 
covered  with  slate.  It  has  several  recitation  or  lecture 
rooms,  a  prayer-hall,  a  library,  etc.  In  appearance  it  is 
quite  equal,  and  in  the  necessary  furniture  of  library  and 
other  appliances,  much  superior  to  many  of  our  Western 
colleges.  It  has  three  professors,  all  excellent  men,  and 
about  fifty  students,  including  the  elementary  classes  in 
Latin.  In  fact,  the  Sardinian  government  forbids  that  there 
shall  be  more  than  fifteen  students  at  one  time  in  what  may 
be  called  the  college  proper  !  So  jealous  is  it  of  the  influ- 
ence and  power  which  the  Waldenses  might  attain  by  means 
of  a  thorough  education  of  all  classes. 

There  is  a  grammar-school  at  Pomaret,  of  a  high  grade, 
where  are  some  twelve  or  fifteen  boys,  prosecuting  their 
studies  in  Latin  and  mathematics,  under  an  excellent  teacher. 
So  that  there  are  among  the  Waldenses  no  less  than  sixty  or 
sixty -five-  youth  who  are  prosecuting  classical  studies.  As 
they  cannot  pursue  any  thing  like  philosophy,  nor  any  pro- 
fessional studies  at  their  college,  they  must  go  to  Switzerland 
or  Germany  in  order  to  prosecute  them.  Excepting  the  few 
who  may  be  needed  at  home  as  pastors,  etc.,  the  Waldensians 
who  obtain  a  collegiate  education  must  expect  to  emigrate  to 
France,  or  some  other  country,  for  the  purpose  of  following 
some  profession.  Nor  have  instances  been  wanting  of  valu- 
able men  from  these  valleys,  settling  in  the  ministry  in 
France,  Holland,  and  Germany. 

But  the  individual  who  has  done  most  for  education,  and 
almost  every  other  good  object  in  the  valleys,  is  Colonel  Beck- 


406 


THE    WALDENSES. 


with,  whose  name  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention. 
This  excellent  man,  after  losing  a  leg  in  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  retired  from  the  military  service  of  his  country 
(England)  with  a  handsome  pension.  ■^"^  Some  twenty  years 
ago,  having  heard  of  the  Waldenses,  he  went  to  see  them ;  and 
becoming  greatly  interested  in  them,  he  has  passed  all  his 
time  among  them,  save  a  few  months  in  the  summer  and 
autumn  of  each  year,  which  he  spends  with  his  mother  and 
sisters  in  his  native  land.  As  he  has  never  married,  and  has 
no  relatives  who  are  dependent  on  his  bounty,  he  has  it  in  his 
power  to  devote  the  greater  part  of  his  very  considerable 
income  to  doing  good  among  these  poor  people.  And  it  is  de- 
lightful to  see  what  he  has  been  enabled  to  accomplish.  Not 
only  has  he  caused  to  be  built,  and  almost  wholly  at  his  own 
expense,  some  ten  or  fifteen  large  and  handsome  parish 
school-houses,  some  of  which  will  accommodate  one  hundred, 
or  one  hundred  and  fifty  scholars,  but  he  mainly  sustains  the 
teachers  who  give  instruction  in  them.  Not  only  so,  he  has 
been  causing  hamlet  school -houses,  plain,  but  sufficient  stone 
structures,  in  a  great  many  localities.  He  told  us,  in  1837, 
that  he  hoped  to  see  one  hundred  and  sixty  schools  estab- 
lished in  those  valleys.  And  we  are  happy  to  say  that  he 
has  lived  to  see  his  desire  nearly  accomplished.  Including 
the  parish  schools,  and  the  girls'  schools,  there  were  last  year 
no  less  than  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  operation,  during 
the  whole  or  some  portion  of  the  year.  And  it  is  a  delightful 
fact  that  there  is  not  a  child  in  all  those  valleys  that  may  not 
now  receive  an  education.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  boys 
and  girls  who  are  large  enough  to  work,  have  to  labor  in  the 
fields,  or  on  the  mountains,  during  the  summer  months,  and 
can,  in  fact,  rarely  go  to  school  more  than  two  or  three 


101  Colonel  Beckwilh  visited  the  United  States  in  the  year  1819,  and  spent  several 
months  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  where  he  is  affectionately  remembered  by  some  of 
the  most  respectable  families. 


STATE    OF    EDUCATION.  407 

montlis  in  the  winter,  —  especially  those  who  live  in  the 
upper  valleys,  —  yet  they  can  go  enough  to  enable  them  to 
acquire  a  valuable  education.  As  to  the  boys  who  attend  the 
grammar-school  and  the  college,  many  of  them  come  several 
miles,  carrying  their  dinners  in  a  basket,  and  manifesting  a 
strong  desire  for  knowledge.  In  the  summer,  one  may  see 
them  coming  from  all  directions,  in  the  morning,  or  see  them 
returning  in  the  evening,  a  light-hearted,  happy  troop,  often 
barefooted,  and  at  best  very  plainly  dressed,  but  showing  no 
want  of  capacity. 

No  man  living  is  so  much  esteemed  by  the  Waldenses  as 
Colonel  Beckwith.  His  portrait,  lithographed  at  Paris,  and 
neatly  framed,  is  almost  the  only  ornament  which  one  sees 
in  many  of  their  cottages.  There  he  is  represented,  just  as 
they  so  often  see  him,  —  with  his  wooden  leg,  his  gun  on  his 
shoulder,  and  his  dog  at  his  side.  Wherever  he  hobbles,  he 
is  welcome.  He  is  known  by  no  other  name  than  le  brave 
Colonel,  and  le  pauvre  Colonel}^  On  one  of  the  school-houses 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Jean,  is  an  inscription  to  this  effect: 
Whosoever  passes  this  way,  let  him  bless  the  name  of  Colonel 
Beckwith.  What  a  beautiful  and  touching  testimony  to  the 
worth  and  beneficence  of  an  humble  and  unostentatious 
Christian  foreigner,  whom  the  love  of  Christ  and  of  souls  has 
attracted  to  those  valleys  to  do  good  to  the  poorest  of  all 
God's  people,  as  a  community,  in  any  part  of  Christendom  ! 
And  what  makes  their  affection  for  him  the  more  honorable 
to  both,  is  the  fact,  that  whilst  they  are  Presbyterians,  he  is 
an  Episcopalian.  Both  may  even  be  said  to  be  staunch  in 
their  principles.  Much  as  they  love  him,  and  much  as  they 
feel  under  obligation  to  him  and  to  Dr.  Gilly,  neither  he  nor 
the  Doctor  could  induce  them,  in  revising  their  liturgy,  to  make 

102  The  good  Colonel  — the  poor  Colonel.  The  latter  epithet  is  applied  to  him  in 
allusion  to  his  being  lame. 


408  THE    WALDENSES. 

the  slightest  change  approximating  to  prelatical  views  and 
forms  of  worship.  They  are  determined  to  adhere  to  what 
they  deem,  whatever  others  may  think,  to  have  been  apos- 
tolical doctrine,  order,  and  practice. 

Well,  indeed,  may  the  Waldenses  love  the  good  Colonel 
Beckwith,  who  is  an  honor  to  our  common  Christianity ;  for 
he  is  their  steadfast  friend,  their  prudent  counsellor,  a  liberal 
benefactor  to  their  poor  people.  He  is  continually  mak- 
ing valuable  suggestions,  relating  sometimes  to  the  modes 
of  cultivating  and  irrigating  their  lands,  sometimes  to  im- 
provements of  their  roads,  the  construction  of  bridges  and" 
paths,  as  well  as  to  the  better  accommodation  of  strangers. 
He  has  aided  them  in  almost  every  thing;  he  looks  after 
every  thing ;  his  advice  is  sought  in  every  thing.  His  post 
is  very  important,  and  he  has  filled  it  with  singular  prudence, 
for  he  has  never  had  a  difficulty  with  the  Sardinian  govern- 
ment. And,  from  first  to  last,  he  has  probably  expended 
among  these  people,  from  his  own  pocket,  the  sum  of  thirty 
thousand  dollars.  What  a  beautiful  instance  of  benevolence  ! 
And  how  great  must  be  the  luxury  which  he  has  enjoyed  in 
this  beneficent  course  of  life  !  What  an  example  has  he 
given  to  rich  Christians,  of  every  land.  Would  to  God,  that 
many  of  them  might  be  led  to  imitate  it ! 

XV.      Our  Last  Days  at  the  Valleys. 

The  last  two  or  three  days  which  we  spent  among  the 
Waldenses  were  devoted  to  visiting  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant localities  in  the  different  valleys,  and  to  making  calls 
upon  pastors  whom  we  had  not  seen.  One  day  we  spent 
in  a  tour  up  the  valley  of  Luserne,  in  which  we  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  churches  of  Villar  and  Bobi,  and  their 
worthy  pastors,  Messrs.  Gay  and  Revel.  We  had  also  a 
view  of  the  Rock  of  Sibaud,  the  valley  of  the  Subiasque 


OUR    LAST    DAYS    IN    THE    VALLEYS.  409 

Serre  le  Cruel,  and  other  places  in  that  part  of  the  country, 
which  are  associated  with  the  history  of  the  Waldenses. 

Another  day  we  spent  in  ascending  the  valley  of  An- 
grogna  to  Pra  del  Tor,  and  in  learning  from  an  intelligent 
native  of  these  valleys,  many  a  thrilling  story  connected  with 
divers  spots  in  this  most  romantic  and  most  beautiful  por- 
tion of  all  the  country  of  these  people.  Just  below  Pra  del 
Tor,  is  the  place  called  the  Barricade,  rendered  memorable 
by  the  defeat,  in  the  year  1488,  of  a  band  of  the  enemies  of 
the  Waldenses,  headed  by  a  Captain  Saquet,  of  huge  size, 
who,  with  many  others,  was  slain  and  cast  headlong  from 
the  side  of  the  mountain  into  the  river,  where  a  gulf  is 
called  by  his  name  to  this  day.  This  was  among  the  earliest 
of  the  bloody  engagements  which  the  Waldenses  were  com- 
pelled to  have  with  their  enemies  in  this  valley.  The  rocks 
are  still  pointed  out,  high  up  on  the  side  of  the  mountain, 
where  the  women  and  children  were  spectators  of  the  battle, 
and  upon  their  knees  cried  out,  in  their  own  language :  0 
Dio  aiutaci  !  0,  God  help  us  !  And,  verily,  God  did  hear 
them,  and  confounded  their  enemies^ 

We  ascended  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  to  visit  some  of 
the  upper  hamlets,  and  to  see  how  the  people  live  in  their 
little  stone  houses.  We  found  these  abodes  far  from  com- 
fortable. They  are  small,  have  windows  of  the  size  of  a 
pane  of  glass  with  us,  which  are  often  destitute  of  glass. 
There  are  commonly  two  or  three  houses  together ;  one  for 
a  kitchen,  one  for  a  sleeping-room,  and  another  for  a  stable. 
There  is  great  want  of  comfort  and  cheerfulness  in  these 
little  abodes.  And  we  could  not  but  think,  that  nothing  in 
the  world  save  necessity  could  induce  us  to  live  in  such  habi- 
tations. Yet  we  found  the  people  uniformly  cheerful,  and  so 
civil  and  hospitable,  that  they  were  every  where  urgent  that 
we  should  enter  their  houses,  and  partake  of  such  things  as 
35 


410  THE    WALDENSES. 

they  could  set  before  us,  —  a  bottle  of  wine,  or  a  glass  of 
milk,  and  a  loaf  of  bread.  ^°^ 

Another  day  we  spent  in  making  a  tour  up  the  valleys  of 
Perouse  and  St.  Martin.  At  Pomaret,  we  saw  the  venera- 
ble Jalla,  since  dead ;  and  was  shown  the  new  church,  in  the 
front  of  which  there  is  a  marble  tablet,  in  memory  of  the 
late  pastor  Peyrani,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Wal- 
densian  ministers  in  modern  times.  Whilst  Cardinal  Pacca 
was  confined  as  a  prisoner  at  the  fortress  of  Fenestrelle,  by 
order  of  Napoleon,  he  was  visited  by  this  excellent  man,  and 
a  correspondence  took  place  between  them,  in  which  M. 
Peyrani  made  a  most  interesting  historical  defence  of  the 
Waldenses,  which  has  appeared  in  English,  in  a  translation 
made  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Sims.  Pastor  Peyrani  died  in 
the  year  1823,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  an  able  scholar,  as  much  at  home  in  every  kind  of 
science,  as  in  controversy,  in  which  he  was  more  than  a  match 
for  any  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  with  whom  he  came 
in  contact. 

In  our  interviews  with  the  Waldensian  pastors  we  were 
struck  with  the  kindness  of  feeling  which  they  manifested  in 
relation  to  their  king.  And  many  things  which  they  stated 
to  us,  certainly  prove  that  he  is  not  wanting  in  a  disposition 
to  do  them  justice.  He  has  ever  been  ready  to  contribute  to 
relieve  those  who  have  suffered  from  fire  or  any  other 
calamity.  When  approached,  privately,  he  has  always 
granted  the  requests  which  these  people  have  made.  He 
has  been  disposed  to  suffer  the  severe  edicts,  pubhshed 
against  them  in  former  times,  to  remain  unexecuted  when- 


103  The  bread  of  the  Waldenses  is  made  of  wheat  or  rye  ;  but  often  roasted  chest- 
nuts, of  which  they  have  great  quantities  of  a  very  large  size,  are  ground  up  with 
the  grain.  The  bread  is  good,  and  when  fresh  is  quite  palatable.  The  Waldenses 
commonly  bake  but  once  a  year,  and  their  bread,  even  when  preserved  with  the 
greatest  care,  and  in  that  pure  atmosphere,  becomes  very  hard,  and  difficult  to  eat. 


OUR   LAST   DATS    IN    THE    VALLEYS.  411 

ever  he  could.  The  Waldenses  believe,  that  if  he  could  have 
his  own  way,  he  would  be  every  thing  that  they  could  desire. 
But,  poor  man,  there  is  a  power  behind  the  throne,  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy,  which  he  dares  not  provoke,  for 
it  is  too  powerful  for  him  to  resist.  ^^  But  whatever  goes 
wrong,  the  Waldenses,  with  a  charity  which  is  certainly  very 
lovely  and  very  remarkable,  are  not  willing  to  believe  that 
the  king  is  the  author  of  it,  or  that,  if  he  knows  it,  he  can 
prevent  it. 

The  Waldenses  are  a  most  grateful  people.  It  was  de- 
lightful to  hear  them,  as  we  did  continually,  express  their 
obligations  to  the  Christians  of  England  and  other  Prot- 
estant countries,  for  the  succor  which  had  been  so  often  and 
so  liberally  given  them  in  the  days  of  their  calamity  and  of 
their  need.  Sure  we  are,  that  British,  and  Dutch,  and  Ger- 
man, and  Swiss  Christians  have  received  an  ample  recom- 
pense for  all  that  they  have  done  for  these  poor  brethren  in 
Christ,  in  the  heartfelt  petitions  which  this  grateful  people 
have  addressed  to  the  Throne  of  Grace,  in  their  behalf. 
There  is  something  here  far  higher,  and  holier,  and  better 
than  a  mere  pecuniary  equivalent.  How  many  blessings 
may  not  the  churches  in  England  and  other  countries  have 
received  in  answer  to  their  prayers ! 

There  was  nothing  which  gi^atified  us  more,  when  among 
these  people,  than  to  observe  their  interest  in  the  Church  of 
Christ  in  other  lands.  They  know  by  experience  the  bless- 
edness of  the  communion  of  the  saints.  With  what  eager- 
ness they  inquired  about  the  churches  in  the  United  States ; 
and  how  delighted  they  were  to  hear  of  the  progress  of  the 
Truth,  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  conversion 


104  In  some  cases,  the  injustice  wliich  the  Waldenses  suffer  is  so  flagrant,  that  it 
is  wonderful  that  the  orovernment  of  Sardinia  is  not  ashamed.  For  instance,  their 
taxes  and  imports  are  one  third  higher  than  are  those  of  the  Roman  Catholics  living 
in  ihe  valleys. 


412  THE    WALDENSES. 

of  souls  to  Christ !  Such  news,  from  a  far  country,  was 
truly  refreshmg  to  their  spirits.  Often  they  desired  to  know 
whether  Christians  in  our  country  are  acquainted  with  their 
history  and  present  position ;  and  they  charged  us  to  salute, 
upon  our  return  to  our  native  land,  the  churches  of  America, 
in  their  name.  They  also  desired  that  our  churches  would 
pray  for  them,  that  they  might  be  preserved  in  peace  in  their 
native  valleys,  for  they  do  not  wish  to  quit  them.  They  re- 
quested also  that  we  would  ask  our  churches  to  pray,  that 
God  would  pour  out  his  Spirit  upon  their  youth,  and  call 
many  of  them  to  preach  His  gospel  in  France,  and  other 
lands. 

And  when  we  look  at  the  position  of  these  people,  and  see 
how  God  has  preserved  them,  we  cannot  but  believe  that  He 
has  a  great  work  for  them  to  do,  in  promoting  His  gospel, 
when  the  way  shall  be  opened  for  it  in  Italy,  as  it  is  now  in 
France.  That  that  day  may  come  speedily,  how  earnestly 
ought  we  to  pray !  On  this  subject  we  should  like  to  dwell 
long,  for  it  is  one  of  great  importance. 

The  Waldenses  need  popular  libraries  for  their  villages 
and  hamlets.  They  have  but  few  books,  and  greatly  desire 
more.  They  also  need  to  have  seven  more  churches  and 
seven  more  pastors.  And  we  sincerely  hope,  that  the 
churches  of  our  country  will  insist  upon  having  the  honor  of 
giving  them  the  means  of  repairing  the  old  dilapidated 
temples  which  remain  among  them,  and  of  sustaining  the 
additional  ministers  whom  they  need. 

But  at  length  we  had  to  bid  adieu  to  the  dear  Christians 
of  these  valleys,  and  turn  our  faces  towards  Switzerland. 
And  many,  many  were  the  times  that  we  turned  to  catch 
another,  and  still  another  view  of  these  beautiful  mountains, 
as  we  pursued  our  way  to  Pignerol,  and  thence  to  Turin. 
Grace,  mercy,  and  peace  be  multiplied  to  our  brethren  in 


THE    WALDENSES.  413 

Christ,  who  dwell  in  the  midst  of  them !     May   God  ever 
surround  them  as  with  a  shield ! 

We  conclude  our  notices  of  this  interesting  people,  whose 
churches  have  rightly  been  called  the  '  elder  sisters '  (soeurs 
ainees)  of  those  of  the  Protestants,  with  the  following  verses. 


THE  WALDENSES 
I. 

God's  eye  was  on  you,  blest  and  happy  race ! 

God's  hand  was  with  you,  holy  men  and  true! 
No  common  kindness  smiled  upon  His  face ; 

No  common  love  was  testified  to  you. 
In  your  rude  homes  His  presence  oft  ye  knew ; 

And  from  the  quiet  of  your  Talleys  driven, 
The  rocks  that  glorious  martyrdom  did  view, 

That  sealed  the  witness  Avhich  your  lives  had  given, 
And  changed  the  woes  of  earth  for  all  the  bliss  of  heaven. 

II. 

And  these  are  they  who,  through  great  tribulation, 

Have  washed  their  garments  white  in  the  Lamb's  blood ; 
Who  offer  at  the  throne  the  heart's  oblation. 

Made  glad  forever  by  the  love  of  God. 
Of  these  earth  was  not  Avorthy;  though  they  trod 

The  lowly  paths  of  life,  and  wandered  o'er 
Their  dreary  rocks,  'neath  persecution's  rod, 

Yet  Thou,  whose  praise  they  were  created  for, 
Hast  made  them  priests  and  kings  to  God,  forevermora 


35* 


ERRATA. 

Page  32,  last  line  of  the  poetry,  for  swells^  read  smells. 
"    73,  eighth  line  from  the  bottom,  for  Galeazzo  and   Caraccioli,  read  Galeazzo 

CaraccioH. 
*•    81,  first  note,  for  4551,  read  1551. 

"  121,  in  the  note,  for  Francesco  Nigra,  read  Francesco  Nigri. 
"  181, 13th  line  from  the  bottom,  for  Church  of  Pietro,  in  Vincoli  ai  Rome,  read 

Church  of  Pietro-in-  Vincoli,  at  Rome. 
"  353,  3d  line  from  the  bottom,  fox  port,  read  fort. 
"  361, 15th  line  from  the  top,  for  three,  read /our. 


^ 


INDEX. 


Algieri,  Pomponio,  his  happy  death 

as  a  martyr,  pp.  123,  124. 
Aldine  Press,  notice  of,  45. 
Altieri,  Baitassare,  53. 
Alexander  VI.,  26. 
Ambrose,  archbishop  of  Milan,  16. 
Angrog-na,  valley  of,  326  -  32S ;  parish 

of,  327. 
Architecture,  progress  in,  ISO. 
Arnaldo   da    Brescia,    his    Ufe    and 

death,  19-23. 
Augustinians,  214,  215. 

Balsi,  fortress  of,  325 ;  siege  of,  358. 

Barbieri,  Giuseppe,  a  celebrated 
preacher,  236. 

Bartoccio,  Bartolomeo,  his  trium- 
phant death,  130, 131. 

Beccaria,  Giovanni,  5S. 

Beckwith,  Colonel,  36S  ;  his  munifi- 
cence towards  the  Waldenses, 
405-40S. 

Benedictines,  their  origin  and  his- 
tory, 212-214. 

Bobi,  parish  and  village  of,  310-312. 

Books,  destruction  of,  133-136. 

Borromeo,  Charles,  archbishop  of 
Milan,  his  unworthy  conduct,  148. 

Brucioli,  Antonio,  64,  65. 

Caraffa,  Cardinal,  82,  S3, 85 ;  letter  to 

Oehino,  86,  87  ;  a  Theatine  monk, 

207. 
Carmelites,  their  origin  and  history, 

215. 
Carnesecchi,  Pietro,  53  ;  his  history 

and  death,  126-128. 
Caraccioli,  son  of  prince  Melphi,  73. 
Caraccioli,    Galeazzo,    his    history, 

154-156. 


Casablanca,  Domenico,  his  death, 
121. 

Chapels,  Protestant,  in  Italy,  262- 
282  -.  at  Rome,  265  ;  Naples,  268 ; 
Messina,  270  ;  Palermo,  271  ;  Leg- 
horn, 271;  Florence,  272 ;  Venice, 
273  ;  Genoa,  274 ;  Bergamo,  275  ; 
Milan,  275  ;  Turin,  276  ;  Nice,  278. 

Chaplains  in  the  Neapolitan  army, 
279. 

Civilization,  Progress  of,  in  Italy 
since  the  Reformation,  176-18^0. 

Charles  Albert,  present  king  of  Sar- 
dinia, his  disposition  towards  the 
Waldenses,  411. 

Claude  of  Turin,  his  testimony  in 
behalf  of  the  Truth,  16,  17. 

Clergy,  Roman  Catholic,  in  Italy, 
character  of,  238-242. 

Conciliatore,  and  its  authors,  192, 193. 

Controversies,  among  the  Protest- 
ants in  Italy,  74-78. 

Council  of  Trent,  224-227. 

Craig,  John,  notice  of,  131-133. 

Curio,  Secundo  Celio,  56,  57  ;  es- 
capes from  Italy,  88,  89  ;  his  death, 
152,  153. 

Dante,  his  opinion  of  Rome,  30,  31. 

De  Rossi,  237. 

Distinguished  Ladies  in  Italy,  who 

embraced  the  Reformed  Doctrine, 

78,  79. 
Dominicans,  their  origin  and  history, 

216,  217. 

Education  in  Italy,  183  - 190  ;  Edu- 
cation in  Tuscany,  185 ;  in  Aus- 
trian Italy,  185-188. 

Erasmus,  notice  of,  39,  40. 


416 


INDEX. 


Ercole,  or  Hercules,  Duke  of  Fer- 
rara,  60  -  63. 

Fannio,   Faventino,  his  martyrdom, 

120,  121. 
Filicaja,  bis  sonnet,  entitled  '  Italia,' 

199. 
Flacio,  Matteo,  (Matthoeus  Flacius 

Illyricus,)  54. 
Foleng-o,  Gianbattista,  57. 
Fontana,  Baltassare,  58. 
Franciscans,  their  origin  and  history, 

216,  217. 

Gamba,  Francesco,  his  martyrdom, 

124. 
Gentilis,  Matteo,  and  his  sons,  68. 
Gilly,  Dr.,  his   interest  in   behalf  of 

the  Waldenses,  366,  367. 
Grisons,  Canton  of,  description  of  it, 

137-149. 

Hfltten,  Ulrich  Von,  notice  of,  41. 

Index  Expurg-atorius,  its  history, 
133-135. 

Inquisition,  its  reorganization  in  Italy, 
89. 

Italian  Churches  abroad,  —  in  the 
Grisons  and  their  Dependencies, 
137-149.  In  Switzerland,  149- 
153.  At  Geneva,  153-157.  In 
France,  158.  In  Germany,  159- 
161.  In  the  Netherlands,  161,  16'^. 
In  London,  163-164. 

Italy  before  the  Reformation,  13  -  36. 
At  the  Reformation,  37 -51.  Since 
the  Reformation,  169-286.  Politi- 
cal changes  in  Italy  since  the  Re- 
formation, 170-176.  Progress  of 
Civilization  since  the  Reforma- 
tion, 176-179.  Progress  in  the 
Fine  Arts,  180-153.  State  of  Ed- 
ucation since  the  Reformation, 
183-190.  State  of  Literature  since 
the  Reformation,  190- 193.  Politi- 
cal and  Social  State  at  present, 
193-202.  State  of  Religion  in 
Italy  since  the  Reformation,  203- 
261. 

Jesuits,  their  organization  and  his- 
tory, 218-224. 

Lainez,  221. 

La  Tour,  parish  and  village  of,  307- 
309. 


Learning,  Revival  and  Influence  of 
in  Italy,  28-30,  37. 

Lig-uori,'his  life  and  Morals-,  235,236. 

Literature,  in  Italy  since  the  Refor- 
mation, 190-193.  Sacred  Litera- 
ture in  Italy  since  the  Reforma- 
tion, 235-238. 

Lojano,  Padre,  236. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  220. 

Lupetino,  Baldo,  53. 

Luserne,  valley  of,  307-313. 

Macel,  parish  of,  322. 

Maio,  Cardinal,  237. 

Manricha,  Isabella,  78. 

Manzolli,  Angelo,  81. 

Maneille,  parish  of,  321. 

Martyr,  or  Martire,  at  Naples,  72,  73  ; 

flies  from  Italy,  87;  visits  Switzer-     > 

land  and  England,  149 ;  his  death, 

150. 
Mezzofanti,  Cardinal,  237.  ^ 

Mirabouc,  312  ;  its  surrender,  and  the 

plot    connected    with  that  event, 

363. 
Mollio,  John,    65;    his   martyrdom, 

121  - 123. 
Monastic    Establishments   in   Italy, 

state  of,  242-250. 
Morality,  state  of  in  Italy,  253-258. 
Morata,  Olym{)ia,  notice  of,  60 ;  her 

death,  160-161. 
Music,  progress  in,  1S2,  183. 

Nicolini,  notice  of  his  Anialdo  da 
Brescia.,  197. 

Ochino,  Bernardino,  at  Naples,  71, 
72;  flies  from  Italy,  86 ;  visits  En- 
gland, 149;  his  death,  150,151. 

Obscure  Men,  Letters  from,  41,  42. 

Orders,  Religious,  new  ones  created 
and  old  ones  renewed,  208-224. 

Paganism  in  the  Church,  15, 16. 
Painting,  progress  in,  182. 
Paleario,    Aonio,   notice   of,  69 ;  his 

death,  128-130. 
Pascali,    Ludovico,   his   martyrdom, 

125,  126. 
Paulicians,  their  origin  and  history, 

17,  IS. 
Pellico,  Silvio,  192. 
Perez,  Juan,  157. 
Perouse,  valley  of,  315-318. 
I'elrnrch,  his  opinions  of  the  Church 

of  Rome,  31 -33. 


INDEX. 


417 


Planitz,  John,  ambassador  of  Sax- 
ony, letter  to,  from  Bologna,  66  -  68. 

Pomaret,  parish  and  village  of,  319  ; 
Grammar  School  of,  40'J. 

Pra  del  Tor,  32S. 

Pragela,  Waldenses  extirpated  from. 
361. 

Prali,  parish  of,  324. 

Pramol,  parish  of,  317. 

Prarustin,  parish  of,  316. 

Protestantism  and  Romanism,  new 
vigor  returning  to  both,  233-235. 

Reformation  felt  to  be  needed,  34, 
35,  51  ;  a  difficult  work,  35,  36  ;  its 
entrance  into  Italy,  37-51 ;  prepa- 
ration for  it,  37 ;  circumstances 
which  favored  its  entrance  into 
Italy,  47-50.  Progress  of  the  Re- 
formation in  Italy,  —  at  Venice, 
52-56;  at  Milan,  56,  -57  ;  at  Man- 
tua, 57,  5S  :  at  Locarno,  5S,  .59  ;  at 
Capo  d'  Islria,  .59 ;  at  Ferrara,  60  - 
63 ;  at  Modena,  63 ;  at  Florence, 
64, 65  ;  in  the  States  of  the  Church, 
65;  (Bologna,  etc.  6S; )  at  Lucca, 
Pisa,  and  Sienna,  69,  70;  in  the 
Two  Sicilies,  (Naples,  etc.)  70- 
74.  Suppression  of  the  Reforma- 
tion at  Modena,  91,  92  ;  at  Ferrara, 
92-94;  at  Venice,  97-100;  at  Lo- 
carno, 100-104;  at  Milan,  Mantua, 
and  Cremona,  104,  105;  at  Lucca, 
105-107;  at  Florence,  107,  108; 
at  Naples,  108-110;  in  Calabria, 
110-117;  in  the  Pope's  Domin- 
ions, 117- 120. 

Religion  of  the  Italians,  its  charac- 
ter, 250. 

Rende,  or  Renata,  Duchess  of  Fer- 
rara, 60-63,  93-97. 

Reuchlin,  notice  of,  38;  his  quarrel 
with  the  Dominicans,  40,  41. 

Rodoret,  parish  of,  323. 

Romanism,  reaction  in  favor  of,  227- 
232;  against  it,  2-33-239. 

Riccio,  Paolo,  63. 

Rome  awakes  to  a  sense  of  danger, 
203-208. 

Rora,  valley  of,  313-315  ;  parish  of, 
313,  314. 

Rosselli,  his  letter  to  Melancthon,  54. 
55. 

Rovere,  Lavinia  della,  79. 

Sadoleti,  Cardinal,  82. 


Savonarola,  his  life,  doctrines,  and 

death,  23-28. 
Sculpture,  progress  in,  181. 
Siffns,  encouraging,  respecting  Italy, 

258-261. 
Socinus,  Lelius,  150. 
St.  Germain,  parish  of,  316,  317. 
St.  Januarius,  fete  of,  253. 
St.  Jean,  parish  of,  307. 
St.  Martin,  valley  of,  318-326. 
Study  of  the  Scriptures,  advances  in 

Italy,  44  -  46. 

Translations  of  the  Scriptures  into 

Italian,  by  whom  made.  47,  48. 
Trent,  Council  of,  224-227. 
Truth,  struggles  for,  14,  15. 
Turchi,  Bishop,  236. 

Valdes,  Juan,  70,  71. 
Valteline,  description  of  it,  146,  147. 
Venice,  persecutions  at,  99,  100. 
Varaglia,  Godfredo,  his  martyrdom, 

124,  125. 
Verge rio,  Pierpalo,  59. 
Vergerio,  Gianbattista,  59,  98. 
Victor  Amadeus  II.,  360,  361. 
Villar,    parish   and    village   of,  309, 

310;  Gunpowder  plot  of,  310. 
Ville   Stche,  parish  of,  320 ;  bloody 

scene  in  the  same,  320,  321. 
Visits  to  the  Valleys,  by  the  author, 

369-374. 

Waldenses,  their  name,  286;  their 
origin,  287;  their  own  opinions 
respecting  their  origin,  288-291; 
testimony  of  their  enemies  on  this 
subject,  291  ;  why  called  Leonists, 
293-295;  testimony  of  Rorenco 
and  others,  295;  opinion  of  Voltaire 
respecting  their  origin,  297  ;  opin- 
ions of  distinguished  Protestants, 
298 ;  their  antiquity  attested  by 
their  dialect,  299,  300;  notice  of 
their  country,  301-330 ;  their  num- 
ber, 337  ;  their  missionary  spirit, 
338-341 ;  first  persecution  of,  341- 
343.  Crusades  against,  343-345. 
Persecution  under  Emanuel  Phili- 
bert,  346  ;  horrible  persecution  in 
1655,  349 ;  last  war,  354-356 ;  their 
glorious  return,  3-57-359;  their 
subsequent  hi^tory,  362-365;  re- 
newed interest  in  their  behalf, 
365-368 ;  their  present  state,  369- 


418 


INDEX. 


413  ;  names  of  their  pastors,  376 ; 
style  of  preaching  among  them, 
378 ;  public  worship,  381 ;  their 
liturgy  383  ;  their  church  polity, 
386-394;  their  doctrines,  394- 
398  ;  state  of  religion,  399  ;  state  of 
morals,  401 ;  education,  404 ;  need 
of  popular  libraries,  412 ;  hymn  to, 
413. 


Waldo,  Peter,  325 ;    his  followers, 

336. 
Writings  of  the  Reformers  penetrate 
into  Italy,  42-44. 

Zanchi,  Jerome,  notice  of,  159,  160. 


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